Domains and Frames: Descriptions

Domains and Frames: Descriptions

Inherited frames

Most of the semantic frames described in this project occur in specific semantic domains, characterizing particular types of events, states, objects, and so on. There are, however, some frames of a very general nature that are inherited by more specific frames, and in some cases by entire domains (for example, the Communication frame). These higher-level frames characterize the basic structural properties of events and relations in the more specific frames.

An example of such a frame is the Reciprocality frame. This frame is associated with its own syntactic valence phenomena but occurs in combination with other frames that characterize the qualitative properties of the events and relations in question. A characteristic syntactic property of the Reciprocality frame is that it allows either a joint or disjoint reference to multiple participants in a relatively symmetric event or relation.

Specific examples used in the descriptions of inherited frames often belong in one of the inheriting frames and are used here to demonstrate the properties of the general frame.

Since there has been no annotation in these inherited frames, Frame Element names and their abbreviations are subject to change.

Frame: Causation

Lexemes

cause.v, cause.n, make.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A Cause, animate or inanimate, causes an Effect. Those frames that inherit the Causation frame convey the idea that some event is responsible for the occurrence of another event (or state). In the inheriting frame, typically an FE like Agent or Causer is proposed for an individual or force associated with the causing event, but at bottom we assume event causation.

FE: Cause

An animate or inanimate entity, a force, or event that produces an effect. Volitionality is not a necessary characteristic of Causes.

[John] made me give up smoking.

[The wind] made the door rattle.

[The accident] caused them to be more careful the next time. 

FE: Affected

The entity or event that is changed or influenced by the Cause.

Personal animosities caused [the alliance] to break up.
What caused [you] to change your mind ?

FE: Effect

The event or state brought about by the Cause.

But we do n't want to cause [a fuss] , now , do we ?
In the long term , too much drink can cause [high blood pressure and stomach disorders].

Frame: Communication

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A Communicator conveys a Message to an Addressee; the Topic and Medium of the communication also may be expressed. This frame includes no specification of the method of communication (speech, writing, gesture, etc.). The frames that inherit the general Communication frame can add elaboration to the Medium in a variety of ways (in French, on the radio program, in a letter) or to the manner of communication (babble, rant, shout, whisper). There are also frames that either do not inherit all of the FEs of this frame (speak, talk), or do not inherit them in a straightforward manner (argue, converse).

FE: Communicator

The person who uses language in the written or spoken modality to convey a Message to another person.

[He] finds it hard to communicate with people, not least his separated parents .

FE: Addressee

The person that receives a Message from the Communicator.

The company must be able to communicate [to potential customers] the way in which its
product would satisfy their needs, and provide competitive value.

FE: Message

A proposition or set of propositions that the Communicator wants the Addressee to believe or take for granted.

How do you communicate to them [that you really like them] ? 

FE: Topic

Topic is the entity that the proposition or propositions conveyed relate to, that they are about.

Had someone communicated to the capital [about
the flagrant disregard of the religious law] ?

FE: Medium

The physical or abstract setting in which the Message is conveyed.

Opinions are usually communicated [over the telephone] and are often given within 24 hours.

Frame: Motion

Lexemes

move.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The frames that inherit the general Motion frame add some elaboration to the simple idea that some entity (Theme) starts out in one place (Source) and ends up in some other place (Goal), having covered some space between the two (Path). Inheriting frames can add Goal-profiling (arrive, reach), Source-profiling (leave, depart), or Path-profiling (traverse, cross), or aspects of the manner of motion (run, jog) or assumptions about the shape-properties, etc., of any of the places involved (insert, extract).

FE: Theme

The Theme is the entity that changes location.

The explosion made [me] move in a hurry .

FE: Source

The Source is the location the Theme occupies initially before its change of location.

The policeman moved [away from the door].

FE: Path

Path refers to (a part of the) ground the Theme travels over or to a landmark the Theme travels by.

The door opened , and he moved [past Dad], into the
hall.

FE: Goal

The car accelerated and moved [into the slow lane], as he passed.

FE: Area

Area is the setting in which the Theme's movement takes place.

Emily rose to her feet and moved restlessly [around the room].

Frame: Perception

Lexemes

Frame Elements

General Description

A Perceiver perceives a Phenomenon. The general Perception frame is an inherited background to all frames that have to do with some sentient being responding to changes in the environment, independently of the sensory modalities. The inheriting frames may specify the modalities (see, hear, taste, smell), or may emphasize the experiences or acts of the perceiver (peek, eavesdrop, or the properties of the perceived phenomena (clank, rattle, thump).

FE: Perceiver

[We] can perceive the sound emitted by a piccolo but not that
from a dog whistle.

FE: Phenomenon

The Phenomenon is the entity or event which causes the perceptual experience of the Perceiver.

So do our domestic dogs perceive [smells] with the same range
 of subtle `hues'  as we perceive colour ? 

Frame: Reciprocality

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Protagonist-1

The particpant in a reciprocal event that is encoded as the subject of an active-form sentence or as a by-PP in a passive.

`[You] can't argue politics with foreigners,' sighed the policeman.

FE: Protagonist-2

The participant in a reciprocal event that is coded in a with-PP.

We have been arguing the point [with the inspector at claims
branch] for many many months and we just seem to go round in circles.

FE: Protagonists

The jointly expressed participants in a reciprocal activity.

[They] were gossiping about the weather and American football.

Frame: Transitive action

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Agent

Agent is the entity that acts on another entity.

FE: Patient

Patient is the entity that is being acted on and that may but need not undergo a change.

Domain: General

Frame: Duplication

Lexemes

clone.n, clone.v, copy.n, copy.v, duplicate.n, duplicate.v, photocopy.n, photocopy.v, reduplicate.v, replicate.v, reproduce.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Creator

This is the person responsible for producing the Copy based on the Original. It is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[Pat] photocopied the article.

FE: Original

This is the entity which is copied. With verbs it is frequently expressed as an NP Object:

Pat photocopied [the article].

FE: Copy

The Copy produced by the Creator is frequently not expressed. However, when Copy does occur, it is usually expressed as the External Argument of verbs:

[The results] replicate those of an earlier study.

FE: Source

This is the location from which material is copied, i.e. the location of the Original. Unlike the FE Source in other domains and frames, there is no actual movement of either Copy or Original from this location. Source is usually expressed by a PP Complement:

I copied the design [from a magazine].

FE: Goal

This is the location to which material is copied. Unlike the FE Goal in other frames, there is no actual movement of any entity to this location. Goal is usually expressed as a PP Complement:

Copy the file [onto the hard drive].

Frame: Imitation

Lexemes

artificial.a, bogus.a, counterfeit.a, counterfeit.v, ersatz.a, fake.a, fake.n, fake.v, false.a, falsify.v, feign.v, forge.v, forgery.n, genuine.a, imitation.a, imitation.n, impersonation.n, impostor.n, phoney.a, phoney.n, pseudo.a

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Creator

[Pat] falsified the papers.

FE: Original

This is the entity which is copied. With verbs it is frequently expressed as an NP Object:

Pat falsified [the papers].

FE: Copy

The Copy produced by the Creator most commonly occurs as the External Argument of a predicative use of an adjective or noun target:

[The painting] is a fake.

Frame: Joining

Lexemes

amalgamate.v, combine.v, fuse.v, join.v, merge.v, unify.v, unite.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These words refer to the combination or joining of entities (Parts) to form a Whole. The joining may be carried out by an Agent.

FE: Agent

In causative uses of these verbs there is an Agent responsible for joining the Parts. The Agent is generally the External Argument (or the object of a PP-by in passives):

[Pat] joined the pieces together.

The ingredients were  combined [by the chef].

FE: Whole

This is the entity resulting from combination of parts. When overtly expressed, it is usually a PP Complement (often headed by into).

The directors merged the two companies [into one].

FE: Parts

The entities being combined are often expressed in a single plural NP, usually the direct object of a verb.

The directors merged [the two companies] into one.

FE: Part-1

The first of two Parts mentioned. This is most often the NP Object of a verb.

A walkway joins [the annex] to the main building.

FE: Part-2

The second of two Parts mentioned. This is usually a PP Complement.

A walkway joins the annex [to the main building].

General Grammatical Observations

As with General.Separation, words in this frame can be used statively, as in The buildings are joined by a walkway, inchoatively, as in The schools amalgamated, or causatively, as in I joined the two pieces together.

Frame: Replacement

Lexemes

exchange.v, interchange.v, replace.v, replacement.n, substitute.v, substitution.n, succeed.v, supplant.v, swap.v, switch.v, trade.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Agent

The Agent carries out the replacement of a Theme or Themes.

[Pat] exchanged one stressful job or another.

In sentences tagged with a single Agent, there is no two-way exchange, i.e. the Agent does not give one object to another (implicit) Agent in return for another Theme, as in the following sentence, where the subject is Agent-1 and the store is the unexpressed Agent-2:

I exchanged the sweater you bought me for a new hat.

FE: Agent-1

Where two Agents are exchanging Themes (or Places) with each other, they can be referred to separately. Agent-1 is the first of two Agents mentioned:

[Jo] switched hats with Jess.

In some cases, one of the two Agents is not overtly expressed:

[Members of the scheme] can exchange the vouchers for food

In this sentence, the External Argument is Agent-1 and Agent-2 is INI.

FE: Agent-2

Agent-2 is the second of two separate Agents exchanging Themes or Places.

Jo switched hats [with Jess].

FE: Agents

Two Agents exchanging Themes or Places with each other may be referred to with a single constituent:

[Jo and Jess] switched hats.

FE: Theme-Old

Theme-Old is an entity which is replaced with another.

Pat replaced [the curtains] with wooden blinds.

FE: Theme-New

Theme-New is an entity which replaces another.

Pat replaced the curtains [with wooden blinds].

FE: Themes

Two entities which are exchanged for each other.

Kim and Jo exchanged [addresses].

FE: Place

Place is the location of the replacement, for example the location originally occupied by Theme-Old and later occupied by Theme-New.

Elizabeth replaced her father [on the throne].

Substitute this value for the variable x [in the equation].

FE: Place-1

Place-1 is the first of two locations mentioned.

Jo switched the wallet [from one pocket] to another.

FE: Place-2

Place-2 is the second of two locations mentioned.

Jo switched the wallet from one pocket [to another].

FE: Places

The FE Place is two locations which are `exchanged' for each other, as when two Agents switch locations.

Pat and Jo switched [places].

Pat switched the phone [between the two rooms].

Frame: Separation

Lexemes

bisect.v, divide.v, part.v, partition.v, section.v, segment.v, segregate.v, separate.v, split.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These words refer to separating a Whole into Parts, or separating Parts from each other. The separation may be made on the basis of some Criterion.

FE: Whole

This is a single entity or an aggregate of entities which is separated into Parts. It is usually the NP Object of a target verb.

The directors split [the company] in two.

The teacher divided [the children] into groups.

FE: Parts

This refers collectively to the Parts resulting from separation of a Whole:

The directors split the company [in two].

The teacher divided the children [into groups].

In reciprocals such as the following, both the reciprocal expression and the antecedent are tagged as Parts:

The teacher separated [the children] [from each other].

FE: Part-1

Part-1 is the first of two Parts mentioned. This is most often the Object of a verb.

First, separate [the yolks] from the whites.

FE: Part-2

Part-2 is the second of two Parts mentioned. This is usually a PP Complement.

First, separate the yolks [from the whites].

FE: Agent

With causative uses of these verbs, an Agent separates or divides something. The Agent is usually expressed as the External Argument:

[The researcher] divided subjects into groups.

FE: Criterion

This frame element expresses a property of the Parts or components of the Whole which is used as the basis for separation. Criterion is typically expressed as a PP headed by by, or as a complex PP of the form on the basis of....

The researcher divided subjects into groups [on the basis of
eye color].

General Grammatical Observations

As with the frame General.Joining (above), words in this frame can be used statively, as in The rooms are separated by a partition, inchoatively, as in The group separated or causatively, as in I separated the laundry.

Domain: Body

Frame: Body-movement

Lexemes

arch.v, bat.v, bend.v, blink.v, bob.v, clap.v, cock.v, crane.v, cross.v, drop.v, flap.v, flex.v, fling.v, flutter.v, frown.v, gnash.v, grimace.v, grin.v, grind.v, hang.v, jerk.v, lift.v, nod.v, pout.v, pucker.v, purse.v, roll.v, scowl.v, shake.v, shrug.v, shuffle.v, smile.v, smirk.v, stretch.v, swing.v, throw.v, toss.v, twitch.v, wag.v, waggle.v, wave.v, wiggle.v, wink.v, wrinkle.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains motions or actions an Agent performs using some part of his/her body.

A number of words in this frame occur as blends with Communication, in which the action has an Addressee. For example,

Pat nodded [at Kim].

These examples differ from Communication.Gesture in that no specific message need be expressed. The following is an example of Communication.Gesture:

She nodded to him to sit down.

FE: Agent

The Agent of the action occurs as the External Argument:

[The boy] swung his legs.

FE: Body Part

With some verbs in this frame, the Body Part involved in the action is specified by the meaning of the verb and cannot be expressed separately:

Pat frowned (*his face).

With others, the Body Part is specified by the verb but can optionally be expressed separately (although its presence is generally redundant):

Pat nodded (his head).

A few verbs have a `default' Body Part which need not be expressed but this can be overridden by the expression of some other body part:

Pat waved (his arms).

(The objectless version of the sentence, Pat waved, is a blend with communication.)

The remainder of the verbs require a Body Part to be expressed in a separate constituent:

Pat rolled [his eyes].

Body Part generally occurs as the direct object.

FE: Internal Cause

The body movement may be prompted by either some outside phenomenon or occurrence, or by an Internal Cause, the Agent's mental or emotional state. Internal Cause is expressed in a PP Complement:

Kim frowned [in concentration].

Kim threw her hands up [in despair].

FE: Cause

Something in the external environment that causes the Agent to move part of his/her body. Cause is usually expressed in a PP Complement:

Pat grimaced [at the sudden noise].

Cause does not include any physical force moving the Agent's Body Part. This type of situation is described by the frame Motion.Cause-to-move.

FE: Addressee

This frame element only occurs in the Body-movement frame in sentences which are blends with Communication. Where it occurs, it is typically a PP Complement:

Pat fluttered his eyelashes [at me].

Since this frame involves a particular type of motion, it contains the frame elements Source, Path, Goal and Area, which originate in the motion frame. All of these frame elements are generally expressed in PP Complements.

FE: Source

Source is the place from which the Body Part is moved:

Pat swung his legs [from under the table].

FE: Path

The Path describes the trajectory of motion of the Body Part without specifying a start or end point.

Pat flung his arms [up].

FE: Goal

Any expression which identifies the endpoint of movement.

Pat dropped her hands [to her lap].

FE: Area

Any expression describing a region in which the motion takes place when the motion is understood to be irregular and not to consist of a single linear path.

Pat waved her arms [about her head].

Frame: Manipulation

Lexemes

clasp.v, claw.v, clutch.v, finger.v, grab.v, grasp.v, grip.v, knead.v, massage.v, nip.v, nudge.v, paw.v, pinch.v, pull.v, push.v, seize.v, squeeze.v, tug.v, tweak.v, wring.v, yank.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame describe the manipulation of an Entity by an Agent.

A number of lexemes listed in this frame also occur in the frame Motion.Cause-to-move (for example, push, yank). Only the non-motion uses of these words belong in this frame, i.e. combinations such as push at, push on, yank at.

FE: Agent

The Agent manipulates an object. Agent typically refers to animate beings, but is also extended to mechanical and other inanimate objects. Agent is most frequently expressed as the external argument of verbs:

[A robot arm] grasps the box on the conveyor belt and seals it.

FE: Entity

The Entity being manipulated often occurs as the direct object of verbs:

Squeeze [the ball] as many times as you can.

Pat squeezed [Jo's hand].

FE: Locus

The Agent's manipulation of an Entity may be further specified as being localized to some part of the Entity, a Locus. The Locus is usually expressed as a PP Complement.

Pat squeezed Jo [by the hand].

FE: Agent's Body Part

The part of the Agent's body being used to manipulate the Entity may also be expressed. While the default is for an Agent to use his/her hands, other body parts may be specified. This frame element usually occurs as a PP Complement.

Kim grasped the needle [between finger and thumb].

Frame: Posture

Lexemes

bend.v, crouch.v, hunch.v, huddle.v, kneel.v, lean.v, lie.v, sit.v, slouch.v, sprawl.v, squat.v, stand.v, stoop.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame are verbs describing the body posture of an Agent.

FE: Agent

The Agent is generally expressed as the external argument of verbs:

[Kim] was kneeling by the window.

FE: Location

The Location of the Agent is frequently expressed and generally occurs as a PP Complement:

Kim was kneeling [by the window].

Domain: Cognition

Frame: Awareness

Lexemes

alert.a, attend.v, attention.n, attentive.a, aware.a, awareness.n, belief.n, believe.v, comprehend.v, comprehension.n, conceive.v, conception.n, conscious.a, hunch.n, imagine.v, interest.n, interested.a, know.v, knowledge.n, knowledgeable.a, presume.v, presumption.n, reckon.v, supposition.n, suspect.v, suspicion.n, think.v, thought.n, understand.v, understanding.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame have to do with the presence of some Content in the awareness, knowledge or beliefs of a Cognizer.

FE: Cognizer

This is the person whose awareness of phenomena is at question. With a target verb or adjective the Cognizer is generally expressed as an External Argument with the Content expressed as an Object or Complement:

[The boss] is aware of your commitment.

[The students] do not know the answer.

[Pat] believes that things will change for the better.

FE: Content

This is the object of the Cognizer's awareness. Content can be expressed as a direct object or in a PP Complement:

The police believed [Pat's story].

The boss is aware [of your commitment].

Kim knows [that poison oak is painful].

FE: Evidence

The source of awareness or knowledge can be expressed in a PP Complement:

The sailors knew [from the look of the sky] that a storm was coming.

I knew [from experience] that Jo would be late.

FE: Topic

Some words in this frame allow a Topic to be expressed in about-PPs:

Kim knows [about first aid].

However, a number of nouns and adjectives in this frame which cannot take about-phrases allow Topic to be expressed as an adjectival or adverbial modifier:

Kim is [politically] aware.

[Environmental] consicousness is increasing.

Frame: Becoming-aware

Lexemes

discover.v, discovery.n, find.v, note.v, notice.v, recognize.v, register.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Words in this frame have to do with a Cognizer becoming aware of some Phenomenon. They are similar to Cognition.Coming-to-believe words, except the latter indicate changes of state that culminate in states of belief or knowledge. The words in this frame take direct objects that denote entities in the world, and indicate awareness of those entities, without necessarily giving any information about the content of the Cognizer's belief or knowledge. These words also resemble perception words, since creatures often become aware of things by perceiving them.

FE: Cognizer

This is the person who becomes aware of a Phenomenon. It is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[Pat] discovered a great little restaurant in Soho.

FE: Phenomenon

This is the entity or situation in the world of which a Cognizer becomes aware. It is normally expressed as an Object:

Pat discovered [a great little restaurant] in Soho.

FE: Ground

This is the background or context against which a Cognizer becomes aware of a Phenomenon. It is normally expressed by a locative PP:

Pat discovered a great little restaurant [in Soho].

I noticed a hint of sarcasm [in her voice].

FE: State

This is the state or situation of the Phenomenon at the time when the Cognizer becomes aware of it. It is normally expressed by a Predicate expression (e.g. a PP or a participial VP):

We discovered the children [playing in the pantry].

FE: Evidence

This is some fact that allows the Cognizer to become aware of something. It is normally expressed as a PP head be from:

We discovered [from their job performance] that they were well-trained.

General Grammatical Observations

Passive forms of the verbs in this frame can occur with extraposed clauses expressing Phenomenon:

That year it was discovered [that consumers preferred the
older model].

It is not always recognized [how much work goes into a dinner party].

Frame: Categorization

Lexemes

categorization.n, categorize.v, characterization.n, characterize.v, class.v, classification.n, classify.v, construe.v, define.v, definition.n, depict.v, depiction.n, describe.v, description.n, interpret.v, interpretation.n, perceive.v, portray.v, redefine.v, redefinition.n, regard.v, represent.v, representation.n, symbolize.v, translate.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A person (the Cognizer) construes or decides to treat an entity (the Item as belonging to a certain Category. Words in this frame may also occur with expressions for the Criterion used in the act of categorization.

FE: Cognizer

This is the person who performs an act of categorization. Typically, this frame element is expressed as an External Argument:

[Kim] categorized the books under fiction.

[Kim] categorized them on the basis of genre.

FE: Item

This is the entity which is construed or treated by the Cognizer as being an instance of a particular Category. Typically, the Item is expressed as an Object:

Kim categorized [the books] under fiction.

FE: Category

This frame element expresses a general type or class of which the Item is considered an instance. Typically, it is expressed in a prepositional phrase headed by as or under:

Kim categorized the book [as/under fiction].

FE: Criterion

This frame element expresses a property of the Item which is used as a basis for categorization. Criterion is a general dimension along which Items can potentially differ from one another and hence, fall into different Categories. For example, paint sample can be classified by color or by finish (matte or gloss); if they are classified by color, one can be classified as orange and another as red. Criterion is typically expressed as a PP headed by by, or as a complex PP of the form on the basis of...:

The students were categorized [on the basis of their
test scores].

The librarian classified the books [by subject].

Frame: Cogitation

Lexemes

brood.v, consider.v, consideration.n, contemplate.v, contemplation.n, deliberate.v, deliberation.n, dwell.v, meditate.v, meditation.n, mull.v, muse.v, ponder.v, reflect.v, reflection.n, ruminate.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A person, the Cognizer, thinks about a Topic over a period of time. What is thought about may be a course of action that the person might take, or something more general.

FE: Cognizer

With a target verb, the Cognizer is usually expressed as an External Argument, with the Topic appearing as an Object NP, a gerundive verbal Complement, or a PP:

[Pat] considered a career change.

[The employees] contemplated going on strike.

[Everyone] thought about the game.

With a target noun, the Cognizer is typically expressed as the External Argument of a Support Verb, as a Possessor, or in a Prepositional Phrase:

[The teacher] gave some thought to a
career change.

[Your] ruminations about art are not relevant.

Your application was submitted for consideration
[by the committee].

FE: Topic

With a target verb, the Topic is usually expressed as an Object NP, a gerundive verbal Complement, or a PP:

Pat considered [a career change].

The employees contemplated [going on strike].

Everyone thought [about the game].

With a target noun, the Topic is typically expressed in a Prepositional Phrase:

Your contemplation [of a career change] is understandable.

Your ruminations [about art] are not relevant.

General Grammatical Observations

The words in this domain denote activities; the verbs, unlike stative verbs which appear in the Static frame, frequently appear in the progressive form.

Frame: Coming-to-believe

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A person (the Cognizer) comes to believe something (the Content), sometimes after a process of reasoning. This change in belief is usually initiated by a person or piece of Evidence. Occasionally words in this domain are accompanied by phrases expressing Topic, i.e. that which the mental Content is about.

FE: Cognizer

Cognizer is the person who comes to believe something.

[Sue] realized that Bob was lost.

FE: Evidence

Words in this frame may occur with a PP headed by from which expresses the Evidence on which knowledge or belief is based:

I have learned [from experience] that poison oak can be painful.

FE: Content

With a target verb, the Content is usually expressed as a finite clausal Complement or an Object NP, and may sometimes be expressed by a PP:

The President learned [that the reporters were hungry].

The children determined [the answer].

FE: Topic

Some verbs in this frame may occur with postverbal Topic expressions:

They found out [about us]!

More generally verbs in this frame may occur with quantificational nouns followed by Topic expressions:

The jury learned something terrible [about the suspect].

Frame: Differentiation

Lexemes

differentiate.v, discriminate.v, discrimination.n, distinguish.v, sort.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Words in this frame have to do with a person being aware (or not being aware) of the difference between two Phenomena, which may be expressed jointly or disjointly.

FE: Cognizer

The cognizer is the person (or other sentient being) who potentially determines that two Phenomena are distinct from each other. It is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[The teacher] couldn't distinguish one child from the other.

FE: Phenomenon-1

The phenomena that are potentially judged to be different from one another can be expressed as separate constituents. When they are, one is typically expressed as an NP Object, and the other as a PP Complement headed by from:

The teacher couldn't distinguish Pat from Kim.

In this case, the phenomenon expressed more prominently as an NP Object is called Phenomenon-1:

The teacher couldn't distinguish [Pat] from Kim.

FE: Phenomenon-2

See Phenomenon-1, above.

The phenomenon expressed less prominently as a PP complement is called Phenomenon-2:

The teacher couldn't distinguish Pat [from Kim].

FE: Phenomena

Both phenomena that are potentially judged to be different from one another can be expressed jointly by the same constituent:

The teacher couldn't distinguish [the twins].

Such constituents are assigned the FE Phenomena. They are always plural, as in the above example, or involve conjunction:

The teacher couldn't distinguish [Pat and Kim].

FE: Quality

This is a property that is potentially used by the Cognizer to distinguish one phenomenon from another. It is normally expressed as a PP headed by a preposition such as from, by, or on the basis of:

The coach could distinguish the twins [by their hair].

General Grammatical Observations

Verbs in this domain often occur with the modal auxiliary can.

Frame: Evidence

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame involves some kind of phenomenon, the Support, that lends support to a claim or proposed course of action, the proposition. Some of the words in this frame, such as argue are communication words used in a non-communicative, epistemic sense.

FE: Support

This is a fact that lends epistemic support to a claim, or that provides a reason for a course of action. Typically it is expressed as an External Argument:

[The fact that you lied to me] shows that I shouldn't
trust you.

[Your face] reveals that you are lying.

FE: Proposition

This is a belief, claim, or proposed course of action to which the Support lends validity. Normally it is expressed as a Finite Clause Complement:

The fact that you lied to me shows [that I shouldn't trust
you].

Some words in this frame require the proposition to be expressed as an NP Object:

The fact that you lied substantiates [the claim that you
can't be trusted].

Frame: Expectation

Lexemes

anticipate.v, await.v, expect.v, foresee.v, predict.v, wait.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Words in this frame have to do with a Cognizer believing that some Phenomenon will take place in the future.

FE: Cognizer

This is the person who believes some Phenomenon will take place in the future. It is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[Pat] expects that the Yankees will win the World Series.

FE: Phenomenon

This is what the Cognizer believes will happen in the future. It can be expressed as a Finite Clause Complement, an NP Object, or a VP Complement with or without an NP Object (see General Grammatical Observations):

Pat expects [that the Yankees will win the World Series].

Pat expects [a big win].

Pat expects [the Yankees] [to win the World Series].

General Grammatical Observations

Many of the verbs in this frame allow Raising:

Pat expects it to rain.

In the example above, the word it is grammatically the Object of the target verb expect, but it does not express an FE. Rather, it is merely construed as the External Argument of the verb rain, which heads the VP Complement of the target. In this situation, both the raised consituent it and the VP Complement are marked with the Phenomenon FE, but are marked as separate constituents. That is because the Object can be passivized and therefore not appear adjacent to the VP Complement:

It is expected to rain.

Frame: Invention

Lexemes

coin.v, conceive.v, concoct.v, concoction.n, contrivance.n, contrive.v, cook.v, create.v, design.v, devise.v, dream-up.v, formulate.v, hatch.v, improvise.v, invent.v, invention.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Words in this frame have to do with a Cognizer creating a new intellectual entity, the Invention. These words are similar to words of physical creation such as build and make, and in some cases may be understood as metaphorically based on such words. However, the Inventions in this frame are predominantly conceptual in nature.

FE: Cognizer

Cognizer is is the person who comes up with or conceptualizes the Invention. It is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[Kim] devised a new recipe.

FE: Invention

Invention is the intellectual creation of the Cognizer. It is normally expressed as an NP Object, but sometimes as a PP Complement:

Kim devised [a new recipe].

Kim came up [with a new recipe].

FE: Purpose

Some of the words in this frame frequently occur with a constituent expressing the Purpose for which the Invention is intended. Normally this constituent is a PP Complement headed by for or a to-marked VP Complement:

This car has been designed [for quicker performance].

Kim created this plan [to prevent a hostile takeover].

FE: Material

Words in this frame sometimes occur with a constituent that expresses the intellectual material from which the Invention is created. This frame element is characteristic of physical creation verbs like make; its presence gives sentences in this frame an especially strong metaphorical quality. The Material FE is normally expressed by a PP Complement headed by from or out of:

The composer created the symphony [out of snippets of
popular melodies].

Frame: Judgment

Lexemes

acclaim.n, acclaim.v, accusation.n, accuse.v, admiration.n, admire.v, admiring.a, admonish.v, admonishment.n, admonition.n, applaud.v, appreciate.v, appreciation.n, approbation.n, approving.a, belittle.v, berate.v, blame.n, blame.v, blast.v, castigate.v, censure.n, censure.v, charge.v, chastise.v, chastisement.n, chide.v, cite.v, commend.v, commendation.n, compliment.n, compliment.v, condemn.v, condemnation.n, contempt.n, contemptuous.a, critical.a, criticism.n, criticize.v, damn.v, damnation.n, decry.v, denigrate.v, denigration.n, denounce.v, denouncement.n, denunciation.n, deplore.v, deprecate.v, deride.v, derision.n, derisive.a, disapproval.n, disapprove.v, disapproving.a, disdain.n, disdain.v, disdainful.a, disparage.v, disparagement.n, disparaging.a, disrespect.n, esteem.n, esteem.v, extol.v, fault.n, fault.v, laud.v, mock.v, mocking.a, praise.n, praise.v, rebuke.n, rebuke.v, remonstrance.n, remonstrate.v, reprimand.n, reprimand.v, reproach.n, reproach.v, reproachful.a, reproof.n, reprove.v, ridicule.n, ridicule.v, scathing.a, scoff.v, scold.v, scorn.n, scorn.v, scornful.a, stigma.n, stigmatize.v, stricture.n, thank.v, thanks.n, uncritical.a, upbraid.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A person (the Cognizer) makes a judgment about someone or something (the Evaluee). The judgment may be positive (e.g. respect) or negative (e.g. condemn). The target word may entail that the judgment is expressed verbally (e.g. scold) or it may not (e.g. blame). There may be a specific Reason for the Cognizer's judgment, or there may be a capacity or Role in which the Evaluee is evaluated.

FE: Cognizer

This is the person who makes the judgment. This role is typically expressed as the External Argument (or in a by-PP in passives).

[The boss] appreciates you for your diligence.

[The boss] is very critical of my work.

FE: Evaluee

Evaluee is the person or thing about whom/which a judgment is made. With verbs this FE is typically expressed as Object:

The boss appreciates [you] for your diligence.

FE: Reason

Typically, there is a constituent expressing the Reason for the Judge's judgment. It is usually a for-PP, e.g.

I admire you [for your intellect].

For some words in this domain, the Reason frame element is obligatory. That is to say, the overt expression of this frame element may only be omitted when the reason for the judgment is understood from context. For example, the sentence

I blame you!

can only be uttered when it is clear what the addressee is being blamed for.

FE: Role

Some sentences with judgment words have constituents which say something about the capacity in which the Evaluee is judged. These are typically as-PPs, e.g.

I admire you [as a composer].

There are similar (but not identical) uses of as-PPs that occur with words involving a verbal expression of judgment, such as decry:

Pat decried Kim [as the worst offender].

These as-PPs are probably best considered Reason. The true Role as-PPs are those expressions which cannot be paraphrased with for-PPs. For example, I admire you as a composer does not mean the same as I admire you for being a composer. Rather, the former means something like `I think you are a good composer.' In contrast, They decried him as a traitor is very similar in meaning to They decried him for being a traitor. (We note that the latter seems to be factive, while the former is not.)

FE: Expressor

Expressor is the body part or action by a body part that conveys the judgment made by the Cognizer.

She viewed him with a critical [gaze].

Communication FEs with Judgment words

Because many of the judgment words entail a verbal expression of the judgment, they sometimes occur in syntactic patterns that are more characteristic of Communication words than of Cognition words. For example, the verb criticize may occur with a direct quote or, occasionally, with a to-PP expressing an Addressee. Since the Communication FEs are not available to the annotator while annotating with the Cognition.Judgment tagset, these sentences are marked the Re-examine Sentence tag.

Frame: Mental-property

Lexemes

absent-minded.a, absurd.a, absurdity.n, astute.a, astuteness.n, brainless.a, brilliance.n, brilliant.a, broad-minded.a, bull-headed.a, canny.a, careless.a, carelessness.n, crafty.a, crazy.a, cunning.a, cynical.a, daft.a, diligent.a, dim-witted.a, dim.a, discerning.a, discernment.n, enlightened.a, enlightenment.n, foolish.a, foolishness.n, forgetful.a, foxy.a, idiotic.a, ill-advised.a, inane.a, inattentive.a, ingenious.a, insightful.a, intelligent.a, irrational.a, ludicrous.a, moronic.a, naive.a, narrow-minded.a, nonsensical.a, perceptive.a, reasonable.a, ridiculous.a, sagacious.a, sage.a, sensible.a, shrewd.a, smart.a, unreasonable.a

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The adjectives and nouns in this frame are all based on the idea that mental properties may be attributed to a person on the basis of that person's Behavior, broadly understood. Though on a conceptual level these words always attribute mental properties to people, they may be applied to people's Behaviors as well, with the understanding that the Behavior is revealing a (usually temporary) property of the person responsible for it. For example, while we may speak of a stupid person, we may also speak of a stupid thing to say/do/think. In addition, we may mention both the Protagonist and the Behavior, as in It was stupid of me to do that. Some of the words in this frame also have slightly different uses, in which there is a constituent expressing the Practice with respect to which the mental property holds of the Protagonist, as in She is astute at math. While Practice expressions do not co-occur with Behavior expressions, they seem sufficiently different semantically to warrant a distinct frame element name. Also, while the FE Behavior usually occurs in sentences expressing judgments that are based on specific events, Practice occurs in sentences that are about general capabilities.

In addition to the frame elements which are expressed, there is an understood Judge (usually the speaker) in the background who forms the opinion of the Protagonist's mental properties, judging the Protagonist or the Protagonist's Behavior to be stupid, brilliant, etc.

FE: Protagonist

This is the person (or people) to whom a mental property is attributed. The FE may be expressed as External Argument of a predicative use of the adjective, as a PP Complement, or as the head noun modified by an attributive use of the adjective:

[You] were smart to save all your receipts.

It was smart [of you] to save all your receipts.

You are a smart [person] to save your receipts.

FE: Behavior

This is any action, utterance, belief, or artifact thereof on the basis of which a mental property is attributed to the Protagonist. The meaning of the English word behavior should not be taken to constrain the identity of this frame element too much--conceptually, this frame element includes things that would not normally be described using the word behavior. All the bracketed constituents in the following sentences are examples of Behavior:

That was a stupid [mistake].

The manager made a few stupid [remarks] and then sat down.

What a stupid [book]!

It's stupid [to think that everything will improve].

FE: Practice

Some of the words in this frame have a slightly different use in which they evaluate someone only with respect to their mental performance in some particular domain or capacity. We call this domain or capacity Practice. E.g.,

She is astute [at math].

Note that this does not mean she is considered to be astute in general for doing math. Rather, she is astute with respect to math, but may be dumb with respect to other things. These uses probably belong in a different frame with words such as skilled, but for the time being they are marked with the FE Practice.

General Grammatical Observations

The adjectives in this frame may exhibit Extraposition of a to-marked infinitive VP, with an optional Protagonist expressed in an of-PP:

It was brilliant (of you) to invite the clowns to the party.

Frame: Salience

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Content

The Content is the entity or phenomenon whose salience is described. This usually occurs as the External Argument of predicate adjectives or as the head noun with the target word used attributively:

[The effects of unemployment] are evident in this area.

The rise in unemployment has caused noticeable [social
problems]. 

FE: Cognizer

The Cognizer is frequently not expressed, although the judgment of salience is often understood to be that of the speaker. Where Cognizer is expressed, it occurs in a PP Complement:

Your discomfort is obvious [to me].

FE: Evidence

Pat's intelligence is obvious [from the papers she writes].

FE: Ground

The Content may be described as salient or inconspicuous with respect to its context or background:

The animal was barely noticeable [in the long grass].

FE: Location of Perceiver

The salience of the Content to a Cognizer may depend on the position of the Cognizer. This frame element appears in from-PPs:

The actor's mistake was obvious [from where I was sitting].

General Grammatical Observations

The adjectives in this frame may exhibit Extraposition of a clausal expression:

It is obvious that you are displeased.

Frame: Scrutiny

Lexemes

analyse.v, analysis.n, examination.n, examine.v, inspect.v, inspection.n, investigate.v, investigation.n, look.v, perusal.n, peruse.v, scan.v, scrutinize.v, scrutiny.n, search.n, search.v, study.n, study.v, survey.n, survey.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame has to do with a person (or other intelligent being), the Cognizer, paying close attention to something, the Ground, in order to discover a property, the Phenomenon, that belongs to it or an entity that it contains (or to ensure that such a property of entity is not present).

FE: Cognizer

This is the person who pays attention to an entity in order to discover something about it. The FE is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[Leslie] examined the glass for cracks.

FE: Ground

This is the entity to which the Cognizer pays attention. It is referred to as Ground because it serves as the background or context for the Phenomenon. This FE can be expressed as an NP Object or as a PP Complement:

Leslie examined [the glass] for cracks.

Kim searched [in the woods] for mushrooms.

FE: Phenomenon

This is the property that belongs to an entity or that the entity contains. Typically, it is expressed as a for-PP.

Leslie examined the glass [for cracks].

Kim searched in the woods [for mushrooms].

General Grammatical Observations

Some words in this frame allow alternate expressions of the Ground and the Phenomenon:

We searched the yard for my contact lens.

We searched for my contact lends in the yard.

Domain: Communication

The frames in this domain all have to do with verbal communication between people and inherit structure and frame elements from the higher-level frame Communication.

With the exception of the frame Communication.Gesture, the frame element Speaker is used throughout this domain to denote the person who communicates a Message, regardless of whether the message is spoken or written.

Another frame element which is domain-wide is Medium, i.e. the medium used for communication. This may be a language, a type of text, etc:

We had an argument [in French].

She told me all the news [in her letter].

The President made his speech [on television].

Frame: Candidness

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

blunt.a, candid.a, coy.a, discreet.a, explicit.a, forthcoming.a, forthright.a, frank.a, honest.a, open.a, outspoken.a, secretive.a, sincere.a, straightforward.a, truthful.a

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains adjectives that describe the truth or sincerity of communication. These adjectves, analogously to behaver-evaluating adjectives, can apply either to Speakers or to the Messages they produce. They can occur with about PPs expressing Topic.

FE: Speaker

The person who produces the Message, the truth or sincerity of which is at issue. It is normally expressed as the External Argument of predicative uses of the target word, or as the Nominal Head of prenominal uses:

[Evelyn] was quite straightforward about what happened.

Evelyn is one of the most straightforward [people] I have
ever met.

FE: Addressee

The person to whom the Message is communicated. This FE often remains unexpressed. When it is expressed, it normally takes the form of a PP Complement headed by with:

Evelyn was straightforward [with me] about what happened.

FE: Message

This is the communicative content whose truth or sincerity is at issue. This FE does not normally co-occur with the other FEs in this frame. When it does occur, it is normally the External Argument of a predicative use of the target word, or the modified Nominal Head in a prenominal use:

Evelyn made some blunt [remarks] about the party.

[Evelyn's remarks] were blunt.

FE: Topic

This is the subject matter to which the Message pertains. It often occurs without the Message FE in predicative uses of the target word. It is normally expressed as a PP Complement headed by about:

Evelyn and Leslie are very candid [about their upbringing].

Frame: Commitment

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

consent.v, covenant.n, covenant.v, oath.n, pledge.n, pledge.v, promise.n, promise.v, swear.v, threat.n, threaten.v, undertake.v, undertaking.n, volunteer.v, vow.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A Speaker makes a commitment to an Addressee to carry out some future action. This may be an action desirable (as with promise) or not desirable (as with threaten) to the Addressee. Some of the words in this frame allow an Addressee to be expressed:

You promised [me] you'd come to my graduation.

Other words cannot normally occur with an Addressee:

Kim undertook to finish the project by June.

FE: Speaker

The Speaker is the person who commits him/herself to do something. Speaker is usually the External Argument of predicative uses of the target or the Genitive modifier of a noun:

[Jo] made a promise to me.

[Jo] promised me she would cook dinner.

[Jo's] promise to cook dinner came to nothing.

FE: Addressee

The Speaker's commitment can be made to an Addressee. With those words which allow this frame element to be expressed, Addressee usually occurs as a PP Complement headed by to or the (Indirect) Object of verbs:

Kim made a promise [to me].

Kim promised [me] that everything would be okay.

FE: Message

An expression of the commitment made by the Speaker expresses the frame element Message. Message is expressed as a finite or non-finite clausal Complement or an NP Object:

I swore [that I would never make the same mistake again].

The owner finally consented [to sell the business].

They threatened [revenge].

FE: Topic

Topic expressions are not very frequent in this frame. They can occur with noun targets.

Jo made endless promises [about working harder at school].

FE: Medium

As with other frames in the Communication domain, the Medium of communication may be expressed. Medium is the physical entity or channel used to transmit the Message.

Bob threatened the workers [in Spanish].

Frame: Conversation

Inherits: Communication

Mapping:

Source	Target
Communication.Topic	Conversation.Topic
Communication.Medium	Conversation.Medium

Description of mapping:

The mapping of frame elements from communication to conversation is not one-to-one. Conversation involves two Interlocutors, both of whom map onto both Communicator and Addressee. Conversation involves an iterated act of communication: each turn within a conversation involves a Speaker and an Addressee, but the participants (Interlocutors) may take both roles at different points in the exchange.

This type of argument structure in Conversation is inherited from the Reciprocality frame (see below).

The frame element Message does not have a counterpart in the conversation frame. This is also due to the iterative nature of conversation: a Message may be communicated by a single turn within a conversation, but the entire conversation can only have a Topic.

Inherits: Reciprocality

Mapping:

Source	Target
Reciprocality.Protagonist-1	Conversation.Interlocutor-1
Reciprocality.Protagonist-2	Conversation.Interlocutor-2
Reciprocality.Protagonists	Conversation.Interlocutors

Description of mapping:

The mapping of Protagonist(s) to Interlocutor(s) is straightforward. While the actual roles that the Interlocutors play are those of Communicator and Addressee, the argument structure of conversation verbs is determined by the reciprocal nature of Conversation. This accounts for the complexity of the mapping from Communicator and Addressee roles inherited from the Communication frame, as described above.

Lexemes

altercation.n, argue.v, argument.n, banter.n, bicker.v, bickering.n, chat.v, chat.n, communicate.v, communication.n, confer.v, converse.v, conversation.n, debate.n, debate.v, dialogue.n, disagreement.n, discuss.v, discussion.n, dispute.n, exchange.n, fight.v, gossip.n, gossip.v, joke.v, meeting.n, quarrel.n, quarrel.v, row.n, row.v, speak.v, squabble.v, talk.v, tiff.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Two (or more) people talk to one another. No person is construed as only a speaker or only an addressee. Rather, it is understood that both (or all) participants do some speaking and some listening--the process is understood to be symmetrical or reciprocal.

FE: Interlocutor-1

In many sentences, one participant is given the more prominent grammatical function of Subject, and the other is expressed within a prepositional phrase, e.g.

[The President] spoke with his top advisor.

In such sentences, the Subject (in this case The President), which expresses the more prominent participant, is assigned the FE role Interlocutor-1. The with-PP, which expresses the less prominent participant, is assigned the FE role Interlocutor-2.

Note that it is possible for a single role to correspond to multiple referents. For example, if the prepositional object in the above sentence were plural, as in

The President spoke [with his top advisors].

we would still assign it the single role Interlocutor-2.

FE: Interlocutor-2

See Interlocutor-1, above.

The President spoke [with his top advisor].

FE: Interlocutors

In some sentences both participants are expressed by the Subject, and there is no with-phrase, e.g.

[The President and his advisor] spoke briefly before the
summit.

In sentences like this, the Subject is assigned the FE role Interlocutors. In such sentences, the Subject always denotes more than one person, and it is understood that the reciprocal communication takes place between these two (or more) people. The Subject may denote two or more people either through conjunction, as in the sentence above, or through plurality, as in

[The lawyers] conferred before the trial.

In either case the FE Interlocutors is assigned.

For nouns in the Conversation frame, it is possible for the Interlocutors role to be expressed by a prepositional phrase, e.g.

There was a brief conversation [between the lawyers].

Here between the lawyers is assigned the FE role Interlocutors.

FE: Topic

In general, words in this frame may occur with constituents expressing the FE role Topic. For example:

The President and his top advisors discussed [the scandal].

They had a discussion [about the scandal]

FE: Medium

Most words in the Communication domain may occur with constituents expressing the Medium of communication, such as the language used or the medium proper (e.g. print or radio).

The candidates debated [on the radio].

Frame: Encoding

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

couch.v, express.v, expression.n, formulate.v, formulation.n, frame.v, phrase.v, phrasing.n, put.v, voice.v, word.v, wording.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A person (the Speaker) expresses a Message or mental content, broadly understood, in a particular Manner. The content may be emotional, as in express one's feelings, intellectual, as in formulate the idea carefully, or linguistic, as in phrase your question as a comment.

FE: Speaker

The Speaker, the person who encodes the Message, occurs as the External Argument of all these verbs:

[The teacher] phrased the question carefully.

FE: Message

In this frame Message is almost invariably expressed in an NP Object. (The only exceptions occur with the verb express, which is occasionally used with that-clause complements.)

The Prime Minister expressed [her sympathy for the victims].

The Prime Minister expressed that she was worried about the victims.

FE: Manner

For most of the words in this frame, some expression of Manner or Medium is obligatory. As in other frames, Manner expressions characterize the action (in this case, the speech act performed by the Speaker). However, a wide range of Manner expressions occurs in this frame, including the following types:

True manner & You should phrase it [carefully]. 
Illocutionary force & You should phrase it [as a question]. 
Purpose & You should phrase it [so that everyone understands]. 

FE: Medium

This frame element expresses the medium of communication, such as the language used or the specific type of text in which the Message occurs:

Kim formulated her objections [in French].

Kim formulated her objections [in a letter].

Frame: Gesture

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

beckon.v, gesticulate.v, gesture.v, motion.v, nod.v, signal.v, wave.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame have to do with non-verbal communication. Topic is not normally expressed with these words. This seems to be related to the absence of a verbal code in cases of gestural communication. Topic can be viewed as a partial characterization of a Message, but such partial characterization is either difficult or irrelevant in the absence of a verbal code.

FE: Communicator

This is the person who communicates a Message non-verbally. It is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[The teacher] gestured us into the room.

FE: Addressee

This is the person to whom a non-verbal Message is communicated. It may be expressed as an NP Object or as a PP Complement:

The teacher gestured [us] into the room.

The teacher gestured [to us] to enter the room.

FE: Message

This is the content of non-verbal communication. It may be expressed as a that-clause Complement, a to-marked infinitive VP Complement, or a directional PP Complement:

The teacher gestured [that it was time to leave].

The teacher gestured to us [to enter the room].

The teacher gestured us [into the room].

Frame: Hear

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

hear.v, overhear.v, read.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Words in this frame denote events of verbal communication, but express the Addresee rather than the Speaker as an External Argument.

FE: Speaker

This is the person who produces a Message. Typically, it is expressed in this frame as a PP-complement headed by from:

The students heard [from Pat] that class was canceled.

FE: Addressee

This FE is the person who receives a Message. It is expressed as an Exteranal Argument in this frame:

[The students] heard from Pat that class was canceled.

FE: Message

The Message is the content that is communicated from one person to another. It is normally expressed as an NP Object or a finite clause Complement:

The students heard [the news].

The students heard from Pat [that class was canceled].

FE: Topic

Topic is the subject matter about which the Message is communicated. It is normally expressed as a PP-complement headed by about, with or without a quantificational noun:

The students heard [about class].

The students heard something [about today's class].

The quantificational noun, if present, is treated as the Message.

FE: Medium

Medium is the physical entity or channel used to transmit the Message. It is normally expressed as a PP-complement headed by on or in:

The students heard the news [on the radio].

The students read the news [in the paper].

Frame: Manner

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

babble.v, bluster.v, chant.v, chatter.v, drawl.v, gabble.v, gibber.v, jabber.v, lisp.v, mouth.v, mumble.v, mutter.v, natter.v, prattle.v, rant.v, rave.v, shout.v, simper.v, sing.v, slur.v, stammer.v, stutter.v, whisper.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

FE: Speaker

Speaker is the person who produces a Message or communicates about a Topic. It is expressed as the External Argument of verbs:

[The boy] mumbled an apology.

FE: Addressee

Addressee is the person to whom the Speaker is communicating. When expressed, the Addressee occurs as a PP Complement:

The taxi driver chattered away [to me] about gardening.

FE: Message

Message is the content which is communicated by the Speaker. The Message may be a direct quote, a finite complement clause or an NP Object:

[``I- It was an accident,''] Jo stammered.

Jo stammered [that it was an accident].

Jo stammered [an apology].

FE: Topic

Topic is the subject matter of the communicated Message. It is normally expressed as a PP Complement headed by about and, in this frame, is frequently preceded by a quantificational noun which is treated as referring to the Message:

The actor chattered [about the difficulties of being famous].

The person next to me muttered something [about pride coming before a fall].

FE: Medium

This frame element expresses the medium of communication, such as the language used or the specific type of text in which the Message occurs. It is normally expressed as a PP-complement headed by on or in:

The Beatles sang [on the Ed Sullivan show].

The drunk man mumbled [in French].

Frame: Communication_Noise

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

babble.n, bark.v, bawl.v, bellow.v, bleat.v, boom.v, bray.v, burble.v, cackle.v, chirp.v, chirrup.v, chuckle.v, cluck.v, coo.v, croak.v, croon.v, crow.v, cry.v, drone.v, gasp.v, grate.v, groan.v, growl.v, grunt.v, gurgle.v, hiss.v, hoot.v, howl.v, moan.v, murmur.v, purr.v, rap.v, rasp.v, rattle.v, roar.v, rumble.v, scream.v, screech.v, shriek.v, shrill.v, snarl.v, snort.v, splutter.v, sputter.v, squawk.v, squeak.v, squeal.v, thunder.v, titter.v, trill.v, trumpet.v, twitter.v, wail.v, warble.v, wheeze.v, whimper.v, whine.v, whoop.v, yell.v, yelp.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains words for types of noise which can be used to characterize verbal communication.

While the verbs in Communication.Manner are specific to verbal communication, Communication.Noise contains verbs which originate in the Perception domain (not in the communication domain) where they simply characterize sounds (including sounds produced by animals and inanimate objects).

FE: Speaker

Speaker occurs as the External Argument:

[Kim] whined that it wasn't fair.

FE: Addressee

Addressees generally occur in to or at PPs:

Kim whined [to Jess] that it wasn't fair.

Jess screamed [at Kim] to be quiet.

FE: Message

Message has a number of different realizations in this frame, including that-clauses, direct quotes, infinitival complements, for-to phrases, and NP Objects.

Kim whined [that it wasn't fair].

[``Get moving!''] Jess growled.

Jess growled at me [to get moving].

Jess growled [for me to get moving].

Jess growled [an order].

Quoted Messages may either precede or follow the External Argument and verb, or may be discontinuous:

``Get moving!'' Jess growled.

Jess growled angrily ``Get moving!''

``For goodness sake,'' Jess growled, ``get moving!''

FE: Topic

Topic occurs in PP Complements, usually headed by about:

Kim howled [about the unfairness of it all].

FE: Medium

The physical entity or channel used to transmit the Message. It is normally expressed as a PP Complement headed by on or in:

Pat screamed something [in Spanish].

Frame: Questioning

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

grill.v, inquire.v, inquiry.n, interrogate.v, interrogation.n, query.n, query.v, question.n, question.v, questioning.n, quiz.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame have to do with a Speaker asking an Addressee a question which calls for a reply (as opposed to making a request which calls for an action on the part of the Addressee).

FE: Speaker

The person asking a question generally occurs as the External Argument of verb and noun targets:

[Pat] quizzed me about where I had been.

[Pat's] question surprised me.

FE: Addressee

The Addressee is most frequently the NP Object of a target verb. However, with the verb inquire, Addressee can only occur as an of-PP and with a noun target, Addressee occurs in a PP Complement or as a possessive :

Pat questioned [me] about where I had been.

``Do you often come here?'' Kim inquired [of the person
sitting next to her].

My question [to you] is straightforward.

[Kim's] interrogation by the police was long.

FE: Message

The Message, or content of the question, usually takes the form of a direct quote or an embedded question with a verb target:

[``What are you doing?''] Kim inquired.

Kim inquired [what I was doing].

With noun targets, Message is not common (as Topic occurs more frequently). However, Message does occur in a PP Complement with the noun question:

The answer to your question [of how the company makes money]
is simply that it doesn't.

FE: Topic

Topic occurs very frequently in this frame with both noun and verb targets. It generally occurs as a PP Complement:

Pat inquired [about train times].

Pat's inquiry [about train times] fell on deaf ears.

FE: Medium

Medium is the physical entity or channel used by the Speaker to transmit the question(s):

Kim questioned me [over the phone].

Frame: Request

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

appeal.n, ask.v, beg.v, beseech.v, command.n, command.v, demand.n, demand.v, entreat.v, entreaty.n, implore.v, order.n, order.v, petition.n, plea.n, plead.v, request.n, request.v, suggestion.n, summon.v, tell.v, urge.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

In this frame a Speaker asks an Addressee for something, or to carry out some action:

The customer demanded a refund.

I begged my parents to let me stay up late.

FE: Speaker

[The judge] ordered the plaintiff to return the money.

FE: Addressee

In this frame the Addressee can either occur as an NP Object (usually with a following complement clause) or as a PP Complement of verbs or nouns:

The child implored [her parents] to let her stay up late.

I pleaded [with the bus driver] to let me on without paying.

I made an appeal [to the passers-by] to help me.

FE: Message

The content of the request can be expressed as a quote, in a finite or non-finite clausal Complement, an NP Object or PP Complement. For example:

[``I'd like an extension,''] begged Pat.

The directors requested [that Pat resign].

Pat begged them [to reconsider].

The students requested [an extension of the deadline].

The offender begged [for clemency].

FE: Topic

Topic is rarely expressed in this frame but can occur as a PP Complement headed by about.

Max offered a suggestion [about completing the work].

FE: Medium

The physical entity or channel used to transmit the Message. Frequently expressed as a PP Complement headed by on or in.

The parents of the missing child made an appeal [on television].

The parents of the missing child made an appeal [in the papers].

Frame: Communication_Response

Inherits: Communication

Lexemes

answer.n, answer.v, comeback.n, counter.v, rejoin.v, rejoinder.n, reply.n, reply.v, respond.v, response.n, retort.n, retort.v, riposte.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame deals with communicating a reply or response to some prior communication or action.

FE: Speaker

The Speaker is the person who communicates the reply or response. It is expressed as the External Argument of predicative uses of a target word or as the Genitive modifier of a target noun:

[Sue] responded to the objection convincingly.

[Sue] gave a convincing response.

[Sue's] response was convincing.

FE: Addressee

This is the person to whom the response is communicated. When expressed, this FE occurs as the direct object of a target verb, or in a prepositional phrase introduced by to:

Sue answered [Bob] immediately.

Sue responded [to Bob] immediately.

FE: Message

This is the FE that identifies the content of what the Speaker is communicating to the Addressee. It can be expressed as a direct quote or a clause.

[``I can't help you,''] Sue answered.

Sue replied [that she couldn't help].

FE: Topic

Topic occurs quite rarely in this frame and usually only as a PP Complement of a noun target:

My boss still hasn't given me an answer [about a promotion].

FE: Medium

As in other Communication frames, the physical entity or channel used to communicate can be expressed, usually as a PP Complement headed by on or in:

Sue responded to my question [on the telpehone].

Sue replied [in writing].

FE: Trigger

The Trigger is the prior communication or action to which a response is given. It can occur as an NP Object or a PP Complement.

Sue answered [the question].

Sue responded [to the questionnaire].

Frame: Statement

Lexemes

add.v, address.n, address.v, admission.n, admit.v, advise.v, affirm.v, affirmation.n, allegation.n, allege.v, announce.v, announcement.n, assert.v, assertion.n, assure.v, attest.v, aver.v, avow.v, avowal.n, boast.n, boast.v, brag.v, caution.v, claim.n, claim.v, comment.n, comment.v, complain.v, complaint.n, concede.v, concession.n, confess.v, confession.n, confide.v, confidence.n, conjecture.n, conjecture.v, contend.v, contention.n, convey.v, declaration.n, declare.v, denial.n, disclose.v, divulge.v, exclaim.v, exclamation.n, explain.v, gloat.v, gripe.v, grumble.v, inform.v, insist.v, lecture.n, lecture.v, maintain.v, mention.n, mention.v, notify.v, preach.v, proclaim.v, proclamation.n, profess.v, promise.v, pronouncement.n, proposal.n, propose.v, proposition.n, reaffirm.v, recount.v, reiterate.v, relate.v, remark.n, remark.v, report.n, report.v, reveal.v, revelation.n, say.v, speak.v, state.v, statement.n, suggest.v, talk.v, tell.v, write.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains verbs and nouns that communicate the act of a Speaker to address a Message to some Addressee using language. A number of the words can be used performatively, for example, declare, insist:

I now declare you members of this Society.

FE: Speaker

This FE is the person who produces the Message (whether spoken or written). It is normally expressed as the External Argument of predicative uses of the target word, or as the Genitive modifier of the noun:

[Evelyn] spoke feelingly about what happened.

[Evelyn] made a persuasive statement.

[Evelyn's] statement was quite persuasive.

FE: Addressee

This is the person to whom the Message is communicated. When this FE is expressed, it often appears in a prepositional phrase introduced by to, or as a direct object.

Evelyn told [me] about what happened.

Evelyn spoke [to me] about what happened.

FE: Message

This is the FE that identifies the content of what the Speaker is communicating to the Addressee. It can be expressed as a clause or as a noun phrase.

Evelyn said [that she was not ready to leave].

Evelyn reported [the whole incident].

FE: Topic

This is the subject matter to which the Message pertains. It is normally expressed as a PP Complement headed by about, but in some cases it can appear as a direct object:

Evelyn spoke candidly [about her past].

The teacher discussed [the recent campus incidents].

Frame: Volubility

Lexemes

effusive.a, glib.a, laconic.a, loquacious.a, reticent.a, silent.a, talkative.a

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These adjectives describe the quantity of information a Speaker gives, either in a specific occasion or topic or in general.

FE: Speaker

This is the person who is characterized as talkative, reticent etc. It is usually the External Argument:

[Pat] has been silent on this issue.

FE: Company

The frame element Addressee from the Communication frame does not occur with Volubility adjectives. Rather, some sentences (treated as Blends) contain the frame element Company which also appears in the frame Society.Sociability. In this frame, Company occurs in PP Complements headed by with:

Kim was  reticent [with me] about her family.

FE: Message

In this frame, Message is rarely expressed because the quantity of information given is the focus of the frame, rather than the information content. Messages can be neither direct quotes nor complement clause, but can occur as NP Objects:

Kim made effusive [compliments] to everyone.

Kim gave a hesitant, reticent [account].

FE: Topic

This FE is the Topic on which much or little information is communicated. Topic is far more frequent than Message in this frame.

Kim is very talkative [about her family and childhood].

FE: Medium

As in other Communication frames, the physical entity or channel used to communicate can be expressed, usually as a PP Complement headed by on or in:

Kim is talkative [on the phone].

Domain: Emotion

Frame: Emotion_Active

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame has similarities to Emotion.Experiencer-subj, but here the verbs are more `active' in meaning. (For example, they often occur in negative imperatives, e.g. "Don't worry!"). They also differ from experiencer-subj verbs in that they occur with Topic expressions and can be used in the present progressive:

Pat is still worrying about the exam.

*Pat is fearing the exam.

This frame can be thought of as a blend of a basic emotion frame with Cognition.Cogitation.

FE: Experiencer

The Experiencer occurs as the subject of these verbs:

[Kim] worried about the phone bill.

FE: Topic

The Experiencer's emotion generally has a Topic which occurs in a PP-Complement:

Kim fretted [over the exam].

Frame: Directed

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These adjectives describe emotions that can be directed at people. For example, it is possible to be mad at someone. On the other hand, it is not possible to be sad at someone, so sad does not belong in this frame.

FE: Experiencer

The Experiencer of the emotion is generally the External Argument or the Head noun if the adjective is used attributively:

[Pat] is pleased with the outcome.

Pat had to deal with a furious [customer].

FE: Focus

The frame element Focus is reserved for people at whom the Experiencer's emotion is directed. Usually occurs in a PP Complement:

Leslie was furious [at Kim].

FE: Topic

Kim was disappointed [about the party].

This sentence makes explicit that Kim's disappointment is related to the party, but the exact Content of her disappointment might be that she couldn't go, that the party was cancelled, that she had to go but didn't want to, or any one of a number of other possibilities. The phrase about the party is the Topic of this sentence. Topics occur as about-PPs.

FE: Content

The Experiencer's emotion is in relation to or directed at some Content. Content in this frame occurs as an finite or infinitival Complement clause, or a PP or PPing Complement:

Leslie was angry [that the plumber didn't show up].

Leslie was angry [to find that the plumber had not come].

Leslie was angry [at the plumber's failure to show up].

Leslie was angry [at being let down by the plumber].

Frame: Experiencer-obj

Lexemes

aggrieve.v, alarm.v, amaze.v, anger.v, annoy.v, antagonize.v, astonish.v, astound.v, baffle.v, bewilder.v, bewitch.v, calm.v, captivate.v, charm.v, cheer.v, comfort.v, conciliate.v, confuse.v, console.v, dazzle.v, delight.v, depress.v, disappoint.v, discomfit.v, disconcert.v, discourage.v, dishearten.v, displease.v, distress.v, disturb.v, embarrass.v, enchant.v, enrage.v, entertain.v, enthrall.v, exasperate.v, excite.v, fascinate.v, frighten.v, frustrate.v, gall.v, gladden.v, gratify.v, hearten.v, humiliate.v, impress.v, infuriate.v, irk.v, irritate.v, mollify.v, pacify.v, perplex.v, placate.v, please.v, puzzle.v, rattle.v, reassure.v, rile.v, sadden.v, satisfy.v, scare.v, shake.v, shame.v, shock.v, soothe.v, spook.v, startle.v, stimulate.v, stun.v, surprise.v, terrify.v, thrill.v, unnerve.v, unsettle.v, upset.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

Some phenomenon (the Cause) provokes a particular emotion in an Experiencer.

FE: Experiencer

The Experiencer is either an NP Object or the External Argument of passives:

Pat's behavior amazed [Kim].

[Jo] was delighted by the gift.

FE: Cause

The Cause is either the External argument or, with passives, a PP Complement headed by by:

[Your driving] terrifies me.

I was terrified [by your driving].

FE: Means

Means is a global frame element, not specific to this frame or domain. However, it occurs with a high frequency in this frame, used to describe the way in which some Cause (generally a person) produces an emotion in the Experiencer. Cause typically occurs as a PP or PPing Complement headed by with or by:

My parents  embarrassed me [by showing my baby photos].

The children  charmed me [with their dazzling smiles].

Frame: Experiencer-subj

Lexemes

abhor.v, abominate.v, adore.v, aspire.v, covet.v, crave.v, delight.v, desire.v, despair.v, despise.v, detest.v, dislike.v, dread.v, empathize.v, enjoy.v, envy.v, fancy.v, fear.v, grieve.v, hanker.v, hate.v, hope.v, like.v, loathe.v, long.v, love.v, mourn.v, pine.v, pity.v, regret.v, relish.v, resent.v, rue.v, sympathize.v, want.v, yearn.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame describe an Experiencer's emotions with respect to some Content. A Reason for the emotion may also be expressed.

FE: Experiencer

The Experiencer in this frame is always the External Argument:

[Pat] wants to learn ballroom dancing.

FE: Content

In this frame Content occurs as an NP Object, infinitival or gerundive Complement and (less frequently) as a PP Complement or finite clausal Complement:

Everyone loves [compliments].

Everyone loves [to be complimented].

Everyone loves [being complimented].

His parents despaired [of him].

My parents fear [that I will never find a steady job].

FE: Reason

Reason occurs frequently as a PP Complement headed by for:

He thinks people only like him [for his money].

Pat envies Kim [for winning the prize].

General Grammatical Observations

With certain verbs, the Content can be expressed in a finite clausal or wh- Complement which may optionally be preceded by a Null NP Object:

I hate it when you do that.

I hate it that you're always late.

I hate when you do that.

I hate that you're always late.

Frame: Heat

Lexemes

boil.v, burn.v, chafe.v, fume.v, seethe.v, simmer.v, smoulder.v, stew.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains verbs that describe emotional experiences and participate in the locative alternation. For example:

I was boiling with anger.

Anger was boiling inside me.

While these words might seem to be like support verbs for emotion nouns such as anger, the same verbs can be used in the absence of such nouns, e.g. His remarks made me boil (inside).

FE: Experiencer

The Experiencer is generally an External Argument:

[Pat] seethed with rage.

FE: Emotion

The Emotion experienced (usually restricted to words such as anger, fury, rage, passion) can occur as the External Argument or in a PP Complement. Alternatively, there may be no expression of Emotion separate from the target verb:

[Rage] boiled inside him.

He boiled [with rage].

Pat's behavior made me  seethe.

FE: Cause

The Cause of the Emotion can be expressed in a PP Complement headed by at:

Jo burned with shame [at the criticism].

FE: Location

The words in this frame can occur with an overtly expressed Location of the Emotion. Location occurs as a PP Complement:

Fury seethed [within her].

I was seething [inside].

Domain: Health

Frame: Cure

Lexemes

alleviate.v, cure.n, cure.v, heal.v, rehabilitate.v, rehabilitation.n, treat.v, treatment.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame deals with treating and curing injuries, disease and pain.

FE: Healer

The Healer, anyone who treats or cures the Patient, occurs as the External Argument of verbs:

Doctors alleviated his suffering.

FE: Patient

This is the sufferer of the injury, disease or pain and can occur as an NP Object in this frame. However, Patient may not be expressed as a separate Frame Element but frequently occurs as the possessor of the Affliction, an example of Frame Element Conflation:

Acupuncture cured [Pat] of his depression.

Acupunture cured Pat's depression.

The Patient may therefore not be tagged in a sentence although explicitly identified.

FE: Affliction

The Frame Element Affliction is generally the NP Object of a verb, frequently incorporating the Patient as a possessor, as described above:

This potion heals [a broken heart].

The potion healed [Kim's broken heart].

FE: Treatment

A medication or method used to treat the Affliction can be the External Argument of these verbs, or expressed in a PP Complement:

[These herbs] can cure insomnia.

Insomnia can be cured [with herbs].

FE: Means

Means describes the action taken to treat the Affliction. Means as a course of action is distinguished from Treatment (medication or a method of treatment). This frame element occurs in PPing Complements headed by by:

The doctor cured the child [by administering antibiotics
intravenously].

Frame: Recovery

Lexemes

convalesce.v, convalescence.n, heal.v, recover.v, recovery.n, recuperate.v, recuperation.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These words describe the recovery or healing of a Patient from an Affliction without reference to the influence of any Treatment or Healer.

FE: Patient

The Patient may either be expressed as the External Argument or, as in Health.Cure, may occur as the possessor of the Affliction (an example of Frame Element Conflation):

[Pat] is convalescing from surgery.

Pat's wound is healing.

FE: Affliction

This FE is the injury, pain or disease experienced by the Patient. Affliction occurs either as an External Argument of verbs or as a PP Complement of nouns or verbs:

[The wound] is healing well.

[Pat's wound] is healing well.

Pat is recovering [from scarlet fever].

Pat's recovery [from scarlet fever] was very rapid.

FE: Body Part

Where Body Part is expressed as a separate constituent (rather than in phrases such as the wound on Pat's arm), it occurs as an External Argument:

[Pat's arm] healed up quickly.

Body Part is treated as a separate Frame Element although it may be viewed as metonymic for Affliction.

Frame: Health_Response

Lexemes

allergic.a, allergy.n, sensitive.a, sensitivity.n, susceptible.a, susceptibility.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A Protagonist is sensitive to a Trigger, which has the potential to cause some kind of reaction in the Protagonist.

FE: Protagonist

The Protagonist occurs as the External Argument of the targets in this frame:

[Pat's] allergy to dairy products is severe.

[Young children] are very susceptible to infections.

FE: Trigger

The Trigger most commonly occurs in a PP Complement headed by to:

Some people are very sensitive [to chemicals in the environment].

Domain: Life

Frame: Death

Lexemes

annihilate.v, assassinate.v, death.n, demise.n, die.v, execute.v, exterminate.v, kill.v, killing.n, massacre.n, massacre.v, murder.n, murder.v, perish.v, slaughter.n, slaughter.v, suicide.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame describe the death of a Protagonist. Some words include an Agent who causes the death. The Agent may use a particular Instrument or Means. With words which do not involve an Agent, a Cause of death may be expressed.

FE: Protagonist

This FE is the being or entity that dies or is killed. With words referring to killing, the Protagonist is most commonly an NP Object. With words referring to dying, the Protagonist is the External Argument:

The mechanic murdered [his wife].

[The goldfish] died.

FE: Cause

This frame element can occur with words that do not involve an Agent and expresses any object or eventuality that brings about the Protagonist's death:

The cat died [of old age].

FE: Agent

Agent is the person causing the death of the Protagonist. The External Argument of kill-type words:

[The butler] killed his employer.

In the case of the noun suicide the Agent is also the Protagonist, an instance of FE conflation, and is tagged only as Protagonist.

FE: Instrument

This FE is any object used to cause death. It is expressed in a PP Complement headed by with:

She killed her husband [with a frying pan].

FE: Means

This FE is the action on the part of the Agent which brings about the death of the Protagonist. Expressed in a PP Complement, usually headed by by:

Pat killed the cockroach [by stamping on it].

Domain: Motion

Frame: Arriving

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Arriving.Theme
Motion.Source	Arriving.Source
Motion.Path	Arriving.Path
Motion.Goal	Arriving.Goal

Lexemes

approach.n, approach.v, arrival.n, arrive.v, come.v, enter.v, entrance.n, return.n, return.v, visit.n, visit.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

An object moves in the direction of a Goal. The Goal may be expressed or it may be understood from context, but the existence of a Goal is always implied by the verb itself.

FE: Theme

This is the object which moves. It may be an entity which moves under its own power, but it need not be.

[The officer] approached the house.

I ducked as [the baseball] approached my head.

FE: Source

Any expression which implies a definite starting-point of motion expresses the frame element Source. While Source expressions are possible in this frame, they are relatively infrequent. When they do occur, they often express a general direction from which a Theme moves, rather than a landmark away from which it moves.

The cat approached the bird [from behind].

She arrived [from New York] yesterday.

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal (see below) expresses the frame element Path. In this frame Path expressions almost always have a via-sense.

The officer approached the house [through the bushes].

FE: Goal

Any expression which tells where the Theme ends up, or would end up, as a result of the motion expresses the frame element Path. This frame element is always conceptually present and specific, though it may sometimes be understood from context and therefore not be expressed by any separate constituent.

Our visitors arrived yesterday. (Goal is understood from context.)

We arrived [in Paris] before midnight.

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions.

The messenger entered the room [clumsily].

Frame: Cause-to-move

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Cause-to-move.Theme
Motion.Source	Cause-to-move.Source
Motion.Path	Cause-to-move.Path
Motion.Goal	Cause-to-move.Goal

Lexemes

cast.v, catapult.v, chuck.v, drag.v, fling.v, haul.v, hurl.v, nudge.v, pitch.v, press.v, push.v, shove.v, throw.v, thrust.v, toss.v, tug.v, yank.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

An Agent causes a Theme to undergo directed motion. The motion may be described with respect to a Source, Path and/or Goal.

FE: Agent

The Agent's action causes the motion of a Theme. Agent is generally the External Argument:

[Pat] threw the china at the wall.

FE: Theme

The Theme is generally an NP Object:

Pat threw [the china] at the wall.

FE: Source

This FE is the starting point of motion.

Pat  dragged the box [out of the cupboard].

FE: Path

This FE is any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor Goal.

I pushed the trolley [along the street].

FE: Goal

This FE is the point at which the Theme ends up as a result of the motion.

Kim threw the cat [into the garden].

FE: Distance

This FE is any expression characterizing the extent of motion of the Theme.

Pat threw the Javelin [50 meters].

FE: Area

This frame element is used for expressions which describe a general area in which motion takes place when the motion is understood to be irregular or not to consist of a single, linear path. Locative setting adjuncts may also be assigned this frame element.

Kim pushed the lawnmower [around the garden].

Frame: Cotheme

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Cotheme.Self-mover
Motion.Source	Cotheme.Source
Motion.Path	Cotheme.Path
Motion.Goal	Cotheme.Goal

Lexemes

accompany.v, chase.v, conduct.v, escort.v, flee.v, follow.v, guide.v, hound.v, lead.v, pursue.v, shadow.v, shepherd.v, tail.v, track.v, trail.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains words that necessarily indicate the motion of two distinct objects. One of the objects is typically animate and is expressed the same way a Self-mover is expressed in the Self-motion frame-i.e. as the subject of a target verb. The other object may or may not be animate and is typically expressed as a Direct Object or an Oblique. Source, Path, Goal, and the other frame elements common to motion words also regularly occur with the words in this frame.

FE: Self-mover

This is the living being which moves, under its own power, in relation to the Cotheme. Normally the Self-mover frame element is expressed as an external argument.

[Pat] accompanied me for five miles in a blue Toyota.

[The squirrel] chased the nut across the road.

FE: Cotheme

This is the second moving object, expressed as a direct object or an oblique:

Pat accompanied [me] down the street.

The squirrel chased [after the nut].

FE: Source

Any expression which implies a definite starting-point of motion expresses the frame element Source. In prepositional phrases, the prepositional object expresses the starting point of motion. In particles, the starting point of motion is understood from context.

The cat chased the mouse [out of the house].

The cat chased the mouse [out].

The cat chased the mouse [away].

The cat chased the mouse [off].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal (see below) expresses the frame element Path, including directional expressions.

The bikers followed the truck [west].

The bikers followed the truck [through the desert].

FE: Goal

Any expression which tells where the Cotheme ends up as a result of the motion expresses the frame element Goal. Note that if the Cotheme is animate, the Self-mover need not also end up in the same place. Some particles imply the existence of a Goal which is understood in the context of utterance.

The children chased the ball [into the park]. 
(The children end up in the park.)

The children chased the dog [into the park]. 
(The dog ends up in the park; the children may not have entered the park.)

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions.

The bikers followed the truck [furiously].

FE: Distance

Any expression which characterizes the extent of motion expresses the frame element Distance.

The police tailed the suspects [for five miles].

FE: Area

This frame element is used for expressions which describe a general area in which motion takes place when the motion is understood to be irregular and not to consist of a single linear path. Locative setting adjuncts of motion expressions may also be assigned this frame element.

The police followed the suspects [all around town].

Frame: Departing

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Departing.Theme
Motion.Source	Departing.Source
Motion.Path	Departing.Path
Motion.Goal	Departing.Goal

Lexemes

decamp.v, defect.v, defection.n, depart.v, departure.n, desert.v, desertion.n, disappear.v, disappearance.n, emigrate.v, emigration.n, escape.n, escape.v, quit.v, retreat.n, retreat.v, split.v, vacate.v, vamoose.v, vanish.v, withdraw.v, withdrawal.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

An object moves away from a Source. The Source may be expressed or it may be understood from context, but its existence is always implied by the verb itself.

FE: Theme

This is the object which moves. It may be an entity which moves under its own power, but it need not be.

[The officer] left the house.

FE: Source

All the verbs in this frame express some change of location, away from one place and to another. Any constituent that expresses the initial position of the Theme, before the change of location, is tagged with Source. Often the Source is understood from context.

The woman left. (Source is understood from context.)

The woman left [the house].

We departed [from New York] on Friday.

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal expresses the frame element Path. In this frame, Path expressions almost always have a via-sense.

Spiderman left [through the window].

FE: Goal

This FE is any expression which tells where the Theme ends up, or would end up, as a result of the motion.

Our visitors left [for Los Angeles].

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions.

The messenger left the room [clumsily].

Frame: Emptying

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Emptying.Theme
Motion.Source	Emptying.Source
Motion.Path	Emptying.Path
Motion.Goal	Emptying.Goal

Lexemes

clear.v, drain.v, empty.v, purge.v, strip.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These are words relating to emptying containers and clearing areas of some substance or items. The area or container can appear as the direct object with all these verbs, and is designated Source because it is the source of motion of the Theme. Corresponding to its nuclear argument status, it is also affected in some crucial way, unlike Source in other frames. Some words in this frame, such as empty, may also occur with Path or Goal expressions, e.g. The players emptied the bucket over his head.

FE: Agent

The Agent is the External Argument of the target verb.

[Pat] cleared the table of dishes.

FE: Theme

The Theme, when overtly expressed, invariably occurs in a PP Complement headed by of:

Pat cleared the table [of dishes].

FE: Source

This FE is the region or container which is emptied of something. In this frame, the Source occurs as an NP Object:

Pat cleared [the table].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal expresses the frame element Path.

Kim emptied the basin [over the edge of the balcony].

FE: Goal

This FE is any expression which tells where the Theme ends up, or would end up, as a result of the motion.

The children emptied the toy box [onto the floor].

Frame: Filling

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Filling.Theme
Motion.Source	Filling.Source
Motion.Path	Filling.Path
Motion.Goal	Filling.Goal

Lexemes

adorn.v, anoint.v, cover.v, dust.v, load.v, pack.v, smear.v, spread.v, stuff.v, wrap.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These are words relating to filling containers and covering areas with some thing, things or substance. The area or container can appear as the direct object with all these verbs, and is designated Goal because it is the goal of motion of the Theme. Corresponding to its nuclear argument status, it is also affected in some crucial way, unlike Goal in other frames.

FE: Agent

The Agent is an External Argument of the target word:

[Jo] smeared the toast with a small amount of jam.

FE: Theme

The Theme most frequently occurs in a PP Complement headed by with or in:

Jo smeared the toast [with a small amount of jam].

FE: Source

Source occurs quite rarely with the words in this frame, although the following type of example does occur:

Jess filled a hip-flask [from the bottle].

FE: Path

Path also occurs infrequently, but may appear as a PP Complement:

Jess filled the container [through a small hole in the lid].

FE: Goal

The area or container being filled. Goal is generally the NP Object in this frame:

Jess filled [the container] with molasses.

Frame: Motion_Noise

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Noise.Theme
Motion.Source	Noise.Source
Motion.Path	Noise.Path
Motion.Goal	Noise.Goal

Lexemes

bang.v, buzz.v, chug.v, clack.v, clang.v, clank.v, clatter.v, click.v, clink.v, clump.v, clunk.v, crackle.v, crash.v, creak.v, crunch.v, fizz.v, gurgle.v, howl.v, patter.v, ping.v, purr.v, putter.v, roar.v, rumble.v, rustle.v, screech.v, splash.v, splutter.v, squelch.v, swish.v, thud.v, thump.v, thunder.v, wheeze.v, whine.v, whir.v, zing.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These are noise verbs used to characterize motion. In these uses they take regular Source, Path and Goal expressions like other motion verbs.

FE: Cause

Many verbs in this frame do not occur with a Cause of motion. However, examples are found with a number of verbs, including bang, clatter, clink, clank, thump, generally in examples where they describe the noise of impact resulting from caused-motion of a Theme:

[Pat] thumped the books down on the table.

*[Pat] thudded the books down on the table.

FE: Theme

In sentences containing a Cause, the Theme is typically the NP Object. In other sentences, the Theme is normally the External Argument:

Pat thumped [the books] down on the table.

[Pat] crunched over the fresh snow.

FE: Source

Any expression which implies a definite starting-point of motion expresses the frame element Source.

The train rumbled [out of the station].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal expresses the frame element Path.

The truck roared [through the tunnel].

FE: Goal

Any expression which tells where the Theme ends up as a result of the motion expresses the FE Goal.

The plates clattered [to the floor].

FE: Area

This FE is the general area in which motion takes place, used particularly if the motion is understood as following a complex or non-linear path:

The fly buzzed [about the room].

FE: Distance

This FE is any expression which characterizes the extent of motion. This frame element occurs throughout the motion domain but is very infrequent in Motion.Noise.

The engine spluttered forward [a short way] and stopped.

Frame: Path-shape

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Path-shape.Theme
Motion.Source	Path-shape.Source
Motion.Path	Path-shape.Path
Motion.Goal	Path-shape.Goal

Lexemes

angle.v, bear.v, crisscross.v, cross.v, descend.v, dip.v, drop.v, edge.v, emerge.v, exit.v, leave.v, meander.v, mount.v, plummet.v, reach.v, rise.v, skirt.v, slant.v, snake.v, swerve.v, swing.v, traverse.v, veer.v, weave.v, wind.v, zigzag.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame all describe motion in terms of the shape of the path traversed by the entity that moves. A defining characteristic is that they can also be used to describe the shape of a physical path, such as a road or trail:

Kim meandered through the woods.

The road meanders through the woods.

In these uses they are not literally motion verbs, but express what Langacker (1987) calls subjective motion. Such uses are annotated, but not ultimately be treated as part of this frame.

Some of the words in this frame imply a Source or Goal which is expressed by a direct object:

We entered the garden on the west side.

The walking path entered the garden on the west side.

Some of the words indicate a Path which requires mention of a landmark (below, in italics):

We veered north and skirted the lake.

The road veered north and skirted the lake.

FE: Theme

This is the object which moves. In many sentences this FE will be expressed as something which moves under its own power. However, this FE is not required to be an animate mover, so it is different from Self-mover.

[Kim] zigzagged through the woods.

[The water droplet] zigzagged down the window.

FE: Source

Any expression which implies a definite starting-point of motion expresses the frame element Source. In prepositional phrases, the prepositional object expresses the starting point of motion. In particles, the starting point of motion is understood from context.

The cat crossed [the yard].

The cat weaved [out].

The cat meandered [away].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal (see below) expresses the frame element Path, including directional expressions:

The bikers zigzagged [through the desert].

The cyclist swerved [towards the gate].

FE: Goal

Any expression which tells where the Theme ends up as a result of the motion expresses the frame element Goal.

The children meandered [into the neighbor's yard].

The car veered [into the bushes].

Some particles imply the existence of a Goal which is understood in the context of utterance:

The children meandered [over] and sat down.

FE: Road

Any expression that identifies a physical path expresses the frame element Road.

[The bike trail] zigzagged through the woods.

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions. An example follows:

The bikers zigzagged [furiously] through the desert.

FE: Distance

Any expression which characterizes the extent of motion expresses the frame element Distance.

I zigzagged [twenty feet] before slipping and falling.

FE: Area

This frame element is used for expressions which describe a general area in which motion takes place when the motion is understood to be irregular and not to consist of a single linear path.

The bikers crisscrossed [the desert].

Locative setting adjuncts of motion expressions may also be assigned this frame element.

The tourists meandered [through the woods].

Frame: Placing

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Placing.Theme
Motion.Source	Placing.Source
Motion.Path	Placing.Path
Motion.Goal	Placing.Goal

Lexemes

arrange.v, arrangement.n, array.v, bring.v, deposit.v, embed.v, hang.v, immerse.v, implant.v, inject.v, insert.v, insertion.n, install.v, lay.v, lean.v, load.v, lodge.v, mount.v, pack.v, park.v, pile.v, place.v, placement.n, plant.v, position.v, rest.v, set.v, situate.v, smear.v, spread.v, stand.v, stash.v, station.v, stick.v, stow.v, stuff.v, tuck.v, wrap.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

An Agent causes a Theme to move to a location, the Goal. In this frame, the Goal is profiled. This contrats with the frame Motion.Cause-to-move, where world knowledge tells us that the Theme must have a final location (Goal) but this particular frame element is not profiled by the words in the frame, as it is here.

FE: Agent

The Agent is the person (or other force) that causes the Theme to move.

[The waiter] placed the food on the table.

FE: Theme

Theme is the object that changes location.

The waiter placed [the food] on the table.

FE: Source

Source is the initial location of the Theme, before it changes location.

The waiter brought the food [from the kitchen].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal expresses the frame element Path. In this frame, Path expressions almost always have a via-sense.

The mail carrier stuck the letters [through the slot].

FE: Goal

Goal is the location where the Theme ends up. This frame element is profiled by words in this frame. Sometimes it is understood from context (for example, with bring).

The waiter placed the food [on the table].

The waiter brought the food ([to the table]).

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions.

The waiter arranged the food [carefully].

Frame: Removing

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Removing.Theme
Motion.Source	Removing.Source
Motion.Path	Removing.Path
Motion.Goal	Removing.Goal

Lexemes

abduct.v, clear.v, confiscate.v, depose.v, discard.v, dislodge.v, drain.v, eject.v, ejection.n, eliminate.v, elimination.n, empty.v, evacuate.v, evacuation.n, evict.v, eviction.n, excise.v, expel.v, expulsion.n, expunge.v, extract.v, oust.v, pluck.v, prise.v, purge.n, purge.v, removal.n, remove.v, skim.v, snatch.v, strip.v, swipe.v, take.v, withdraw.v, withdrawal.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

An Agent, usually an agentive force, causes a Theme to move away from a location, the Source. Source is profiled by the words in this frame, just as Goal is profiled in the frame Motion.Placing.

FE: Agent

Agent is the person (or other force) that causes the Theme to move.

[The waiter] removed the dishes from the table.

FE: Theme

Theme is the object that changes location.

The waiter removed [the dishes] from the table.

FE: Source

Source is the initial location of the Theme, before it changes location.

The waiter removed the dishes [from the table].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal expresses the frame element Path. In this frame Path expressions almost always have a via-sense.

The army evacuated the townspeople [through the tunnel].

FE: Goal

Goal is the location where the Theme ends up. This frame element is not profiled by words in this frame, though it may occasionally be expressed, as with the word remove:

Grandmother removed the fine china [to a safe place].

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions.

The army evacuated the townspeople [efficiently].

General Grammatical Observations

A few of the words in this frame participate in an alternation between a Theme object and a Source object.

The waiter cleared the dishes from the table.

The waiter cleared the table of dishes.

The plumber drained the water from the sink.

The plumber drained the sink of water.

The gardener emptied the soil from the bucket.

The gardener emptied the bucket of soil.

The army evacuated the people from the town.

The army evacuated the town.

Sentences with a Source object belong in the frame Motion.Emptying. The frames Motion.Emptying and Motion.Removing differ in terms of which frame element, the Source or the Theme, is construed as being more highly affected.

Frame: Self-motion

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Theme	Self-motion.Self-mover
Motion.Source	Self-motion.Source
Motion.Path	Self-motion.Path
Motion.Goal	Self-motion.Goal

Lexemes

amble.v, back.v, barge.v, bolt.v, bop.v, bound.v, burrow.v, bustle.v, canter.v, caper.v, clamber.v, climb.v, clomp.v, crawl.v, creep.v, dance.v, dart.v, dash.n, dash.v, flit.v, flounce.v, frolic.v, gallivant.v, gambol.v, hasten.v, hike.n, hike.v, hitchhike.v, hobble.v, hop.v, hurry.v, jaunt.n, jog.v, jump.v, leap.v, limp.v, lope.v, lumber.v, lunge.v, lurch.v, march.n, march.v, meander.v, mince.v, mosey.v, pace.v, pad.v, parade.v, plod.v, pounce.v, prance.v, promenade.v, prowl.v, roam.v, romp.v, run.v, rush.v, sashay.v, saunter.v, scamper.v, scoot.v, scramble.n, scramble.v, scurry.v, scuttle.v, shuffle.n, shuffle.v, skip.v, skulk.v, slalom.v, sleepwalk.v, slink.v, slither.v, slog.n, slog.v, sneak.v, spring.v, sprint.n, sprint.v, stagger.v, stamp.v, steal.v, step.n, step.v, stomp.v, straggle.v, stride.v, stroll.n, stroll.v, strut.v, stumble.v, swagger.v, swim.n, swim.v, tiptoe.v, toddle.v, totter.v, traipse.v, tramp.v, tread.v, trek.v, trip.v, troop.v, trot.v, trudge.v, trundle.v, vault.v, waddle.v, wade.v, walk.n, waltz.v, wander.v, wriggle.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A living being, the Self-mover moves under its own power in a directed fashion, i.e. along what could be described as a path.

FE: Self-mover

This is the living being which moves under its own power. Normally the Self-mover frame element is expressed as an External Argument.

[Pat] ran five miles today.

[The squirrel] leapt out onto the branch.

FE: Source

Any expression which implies a definite starting-point of motion expresses the frame element Source. In prepositional phrases, the prepositional object expresses the starting point of motion. With particles, the starting point of motion is understood from context.

The cat ran [out of the house].

The cat ran [out].

The cat ran [away].

The cat ran [off].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal (see below) expresses the frame element Path. This includes directional expressions and "middle of path" expressions, e.g.

The scouts hiked [west].

The scouts hiked [through the desert].

The scouts hiked [along] merrily.

FE: Goal

Any expression which tells where the Self-mover ends up as a result of the motion expresses the frame element Goal. Some particles imply the existence of a Goal which is understood in the context of utterance.

The children skipped [into the park].

The principal walked [over] and sat down.

A dog ran [up] and licked our hands.

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions. Some examples follow:

The bikers rode [at a good clip].

We tangoed [smoothly] through the crowd.

They had to trek [on foot] through the desert.

FE: Distance

Any expression which characterizes the extent of motion expresses the frame element Distance.

I barely hobbled [six feet] before collapsing.

We hiked [a short distance] into the forest and sat down.

FE: Area

This frame element is used for expressions which describe a general area in which motion takes place when the motion is understood to be irregular and not to consist of a single linear path. Locative setting adjuncts of motion expressions may also be assigned this frame element.

The mouse scurried [about].

Stop running [around] and sit down!

The hitchhikers walked [in the middle of the road].

Frame: Transportation

Inherits: Motion

Mapping:

Source	Target
Motion.Source	Transportation.Source
Motion.Path	Transportation.Path
Motion.Goal	Transportation.Goal

Description of mapping:

The frame element Theme in the Motion frame does not have a simple mapping in the frame Transportation. The Driver and the Vehicle together constitute the Theme.

Lexemes

balloon.v, bicycle.v, bike.v, boat.v, canoe.v, caravan.v, coast.v, cruise.v, cycle.v, drive.v, ferry.v, fly.v, jet.v, motor.v, paddle.v, parachute.v, pedal.v, punt.v, raft.v, ride.v, row.v, sail.v, skate.v, sledge.v, tack.v, taxi.v, toboggan.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The words in this frame all describe motion involving a Vehicle and someone who controls the Vehicle, the Driver. Some normally allow the Vehicle to be expressed as a separate constituent:

I drove [my car] all the way across North America.

I paddled [my canoe] across the Canadian border.

Other words in this domain are based on the names of Vehicles, and do not normally allow the Vehicle to be expressed as a separate constituent:

They biked all the way across the country.

However, a separate Vehicle constituent can occur if it adds information not included in the verb:

I biked across the country [on an old 10-speed].

FE: Driver

This is the being, typically human, that controls the Vehicle as it moves.

[Kim] drove my old car cross-country.

FE: Cargo + Passenger

I flew [the containers] to a remote island.

I drove [the visitors] to the airport.

FE: Vehicle

This is the means of conveyance controlled by the Driver. It can move in any way and in any medium. With verbs, Vehicle is usually expressed as Object:

I drove [my car] to Canada.

FE: Source

Any expression which implies a definite starting-point of motion expresses the frame element Source. In prepositional phrases, the prepositional object expresses the starting point of motion. With particles, the starting point of motion is understood from context.

Kim drove [out of town].

Kim drove [away].

FE: Path

Any description of a trajectory of motion which is neither a Source nor a Goal (see below) expresses the frame element Path. This includes directional expressions and "middle of path" expressions, e.g.

The bikers rode [through the desert].

FE: Goal

Any expression which tells where the moving object(s) ends up as a result of the motion expresses the frame element Goal. Some particles imply the existence of a Goal which is understood in the context of utterance.

Kim drove [into the parking lot].

Kim drove [out].

FE: Manner

Any expression which describes a property of motion which is not directly related to the trajectory of motion expresses the frame element Manner. Descriptions of speed, steadiness, grace, means of motion, and other things count as Manner expressions. Some examples follow:

The bikers rode [recklessly] through the desert.

The bikers rode [haltingly] over the rough terrain.

FE: Distance

Any expression which characterizes the extent of motion expresses the frame element Distance.

The bikers rode [hundreds of miles].

FE: Area

This frame element is used for expressions which describe a general area in which motion takes place when the motion is understood to be irregular and not to consist of a single linear path. Locative setting adjuncts of motion expressions may also be assigned this frame element.

The bikers rode [all over the place].

Domain: Perception

Frame: Perception_Active

Inherits: Perception

Mapping:

Source	Target
Perception.Perceiver	Active.Perceiver-Agentive
Perception.Phenomenon	Active.Phenomenon

Lexemes

attend.v, attention.n, eavesdrop.v, feel.v, gaze.n, gaze.v, glance.n, glance.v, listen.v, look.n, look.v, observation.n, observe.v, palpate.v, peek.n, peek.v, peep.v, peer.v, savour.v, smell.v, sniff.n, sniff.v, spy.v, stare.n, stare.v, taste.n, taste.v, view.v, watch.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains perception words whose Perceivers intentionally direct their attention to some entity or phenomenon in order to have a perceptual experience. For this reason we call the Perceiver role Perceiver-Agentive.

Comparing the Perception-active frame to the Pereception-experience frame, we note that for some modalities there are different lexical items in each frame. For instance, whereas Perception-active has look at, Pereception-experience has see. For other sense modalities, we find the same lexical item in both frames. To illustrate, consider the verb smell where Smell this to see if it's fresh exemplifies its Perception-active use and I smell something rotten exemplifies its Perception-experience sense.

FE: Perceiver-Agentive

This FE is the being who performs some action in order to have a perceptual experience. Itis expressed as an External Argument:

[The waiter] smelled the milk to see if it was fresh.

FE: Phenomenon

This FE is the entity or phenomenon that the perceiver directs his or her attention to in order to have a perceptual experience. Typically, it is expressed as Object with verbs:

The waiter smelled [the milk] to see if it was fresh.

FE: Body Part

This FE is the part of the body used as a sensory organ by the perceiver, typically expressed in a with-PP:

You should feel the water [with your toes] before you jump in.

This frame element occurs infrequently in this frame, because most of the target words imply what part of the body is used (e.g. smelling must be done with the nose). However, the verb feel does take this frame element, because touch is not localized on the body the same way other modalities are. Body Part may be expressed in other modalities when it is more specific than what is implied by the target word in question:

I looked at the wreckage [with my good eye].

FE: Location of Perceiver

This FE is the position of the Perceiver during the act of perception. Typically, it is expressed in a from-PP:

We watched the parade [from the roof].

FE: Direction

This frame element is used for all path-like expressions, except those indicating the location of the perceiver (see above), that describe how the perceiver's attention is directed during the act of perception.

The detective looked [across the street] at the suspect.

The detective listened [through the wall] to their conversation.

FE: State

This frame element is used for predicate expressions that apply to the Phenomenon, providing some information about the state it is in while the perceiver's attention is directed to it:

The detective watched the suspect [fleeing].

Pat tasted the cookie dough [raw].

FE: Ground

This FE is the perceptual background against which the Phenomenon is experienced by the Perceiver. In this frame, Ground occurs primarily with look:

Kim looked for the pill [on the patterned rug].

FE: Manner

Manner expressions may be of lexicographic interest if they describe properties of active perception as such: closely, carefully, etc.

Dan looked at the inscription carefully.

Frame: Appearance

Inherits: Perception

Mapping:

Source	Target
Perception.Perceiver	Appearance.Perceiver-Passive
Perception.Phenomenon	Appearance.Phenomenon

Lexemes

appear.v, feel.v, look.v, reek.v, seem.v, smell.v, sound.v, stink.v, taste.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

In this class of perception words, the Phenomenon is typically expressed as External Argument, and its perceptual characteristics are given some description. This may be a Characterization describing purely perceptual properties, an Appraisal (i.e. positive or negative judgment) or an Inference about some non-perceptual property, based on perception.

FE: Phenomenon

The Phenomenon is typically the External Argument of the verbs in this frame.

[The soup] tasted very salty.

FE: Characterization

The Characterization is the subjective description (of the Perceiver-Passive) of the Phenomenon:

Kim's new furniture looks [stunning].

The violins sounded [as if they were in pain].

The city smelled [like rotting sewage].

FE: Appraisal

The Appraisal is the positive or negative judgement given to the phenomenon:

Kim's hair feels [silky smooth].

That idea sounds [dreadful].

FE: Inference

Inference is the FE that expresses some non-perceptual property of the phenomenon, based on perception:

Pat sounds [devestated] by the bad news.

FE: Perceiver-Passive

In this frame, the Perceiver-Passive experiences some perception without necessarily intending to, but makes a judgment about the Phenomenon. The Perceiver-Passive generally occurs in a PP Complement:

The milk smells bad [to me].

FE: Body Part

Body Part expressions are not common in this frame, but may occur with the verb feel (the only verb in this frame which does not lexically encode the body part involved in perception) or occasionally (and redundantly) with other verbs:

The fabric felt soft [on my skin].

The music sounded beautiful [to my ears].

FE: Location of Perceiver

This FE is the position of the Perceiver during the act of perception. Typically it is expressed in a from-PP:

The house looks deceptively small [from the outside].

FE: Direction

This frame element is used for all path-like expressions, except those indicating the location of the perceiver (see above), that describe how the perceiver's attention is directed during the act of perception. Direction usually occurs as a PP Complement:

His voice sounded muffled [through the wall].

FE: State

This frame element is used for predicate expressions that apply to the Phenomenon, providing some information about the state it is in while the perceiver experiences it:

Pat looks great [dressed in red].

The meat tastes delicious [seasoned with garlic].

FE: Ground

This FE is the perceptual background against which the Phenomenon is experienced (or not experienced) by the Perceiver.

The painting looks great [against the new wallpaper].

Frame: Body

Inherits: Perception

Mapping:

Source	Target
Perception.Perceiver	Body.Experiencer
Perception.Phenomenon	Body.Cause, Body.Agent

Description of mapping:

The Perception frame element maps onto both Agent and Cause in this frame (which differ only in animacy/agentivity).

Lexemes

ache.v, burn.v, hurt.v, itch.v, prickle.v, smart.v, sting.v, tickle.v, tingle.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains words describing physical experiences that can affect virtually any part of the body. The body part affected is almost always mentioned with these words. It is typically expressed by the noun heading the external argument, and this noun is typically accompanied by a possessive determiner that refers to the possessor of the body part: My head hurts!.

FE: Experiencer

The Experiencer is the being who has a physical experience on some part of his or her body, or internally. Often information about this frame element is incorporated as a possessive determiner into the constituent expressing the Body Part, in which case it is not tagged separately (from Body Part), as shown below:

My legs hurt!

Sometimes, however, this frame element is expressed as an External Argument in its own right:

[I] hurt all over!

Here, the phrase all over can be considered a kind of generalized Body Part expression, and the pronoun I expresses the Experiencer independently. With nouns and adjectives in this frame, the separate expression of the Experiencer is more common:

[I] have a pain in my leg.

FE: Body Part

This FE is the location on the body where the physical experience takes place, typically expressed as External Argument, often as PP complement:

[My legs] are a little sore.

I'm a little sore [in my legs].

FE: Cause

Cause is a non-agentive cause of the physical experience. This frame element can be an entity or an event:

[The bright lights] hurt my eyes.

It hurts my eyes [when you shine the light directly at me].

The second example contains an extraposed when-clause, a constituent-type commonly used to express Cause in this frame.

FE: Agent

Agent is the person who causes the Experiencer to have the physical experience. It is normally expressed as an External Argument.

[Rob] tickled Mary.

Frame: Perception_Noise

Lexemes

babble.n, babble.v, bark.n, bark.v, bellow.n, bellow.v, blare.n, blare.v, blast.n, blast.v, bleat.n, bleat.v, boom.n, boom.v, bray.n, bray.v, burble.n, burble.v, buzz.n, cackle.n, cackle.v, caterwaul.v, caw.n, caw.v, chant.n, chant.v, chatter.n, chatter.v, cheep.n, cheep.v, chirp.n, chirp.v, chorus.n, chorus.v, chuckle.n, chuckle.v, clang.n, clang.v, clash.n, clash.v, clatter.n clatter.v, click.n, click.v, clink.n, clink.v, coo.n, coo.v, cough.n, cough.v, creak.n, creak.v, croak.n, croak.v, croon.n, croon.v, crunch.n, crunch.v, drone.n, drone.v, fizzle.v, gasp.n gasp.v, giggle.n, giggle.v, gobble.v, grate.n, grate.v, growl.n growl.v, grunt.n, grunt.v, guffaw.n, guffaw.v, gurgle.n, gurgle.v, hawk.v, hiss.n, hiss.v, hoot.n, hoot.v, howl.n, howl.v, hum.n, hum.v, keen.v, mew.n, mew.v, mewl.v, moan.n, moan.v, moo.v, neigh.n, neigh.v, patter.n, patter.v, peal.n peal.v, peep.n, peep.v, plash.n, plash.v, plonk.v, plop.n, plop.v plunk.n, plunk.v, purr.n, purr.v, quack.n, quack.v, rap.n, rap.v, rasp.n, rasp.v, rattle.v, roar.n, roar.v, roll.n, roll.v, rustle.n, rustle.v, scrape.n scrape.v, screech.n, screech.v, scrunch.n, scrunch.v, sizzle.n, sizzle.v, slam.v, slap.n, slap.v, smack.n, smack.v, snarl.n, snarl.v, snicker.v, snigger.n, snigger.v, snore.n, snore.v, snort.n, snort.v, sob.n, sob.v sough.n, sough.v, squawk.n, squawk.v, squeak.n, squeak.v, squeal.n, squeal.v, thump.n, thump.v, thunder.n, thunder.v, tinkle.n, tinkle.v, titter.n titter.v, toll.n, toll.v, trumpet.n, trumpet.v, tweet.n, tweet.v, twitter.n twitter.v, ululate.v, wail.n, wail.v, whimper.n, whimper.v, whine.n, whine.v, whinny.n, whinny.v, whisper.v, whistle.n, whistle.v, yammer.n, yammer.v, yap.n, yap.v, yelp.n, yelp.v yodel.n, yodel.v, yowl.n, yowl.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

A physical entity (the Source) emits a sound, or two or more entities coming into contact with one another (Source-1 and Source-2) create a sound. In causative cases, an inanimate force (a Cause), or an animate force (a Causer), causes the Source(s) to emit the sound. Sometimes the sound itself is referred to with a nominal expression, in which case it is called the Sound. Manner expressions may also be relevant in this frame, if they describe properties of the sound as such.

FE: Source

The frame element Source is assigned to a constituent referring to a physical entity which emits a sound. Such an entity must have an appropriately complex internal structure such that it can create a sound. For example, a machine or some other thing with moving parts can create sound by itself.

Simpler objects may also create sound if they come into contact with one another. For example, one rock knocked against another may make a clacking sound. When scenes like this are described, one object is often given more prominent syntactic expression than the other, as in I clacked the black rock against the gray one. The more prominent expression is assigned the frame element Source-1, and the less prominent one, usually expressed in an oblique PP, is assigned the frame element Source-2. In the example above, the black rock expresses Source-1, and against the gray one expresses Source-2.

Typically Source and Source-1 are expressed as External Arguments:

[The wind] howled.

[The wind] made a howling noise.

[The branches] rattled against the roof.

[The branches] made a rattling sound against the
roof.

FE: Source-1

See FE: See Source, above.

[The branches] rattled against the roof.

FE: Source-2

See FE: See Source, above.

The branches rattled [against the roof].

FE: Cause

The frame element Cause is assigned to a constituent referring to an inanimate cause of sound which is not itself a Source of sound. The cause applies some force to the Source which makes it emit its sound, but the Cause does not make the sound directly. In the sentence The wind howled through the branches, th noun phrase the wind is a Source, because one could describe the same event by saying The wind howled. In the sentence The wind rattled the branches, on the other hand, the wind is a Cause, because it is not understood to make the sound directly: this event could not be described be the sentence The wind rattled.

Cause is normally expressed as an External Argument:

[The wind] rattled the branches.

[The wind] made the branches rattle.

FE: Causer

The frame element Causer is assigned to constituents expressing animate causes of sound. People and other animate beings count as Causers when they cause sounds but are not themselves the Source of sound. For example, in the sentence The cat howled, the cat is the Source rather than the Causer.

Causer is usually expressed as an External Argument:

[The ghost] rattled its chains.

[The ghost] made its chains rattle.

FE: Sound

The frame element Sound is assigned to NPs which actually refer to a sound in the presence of the target. This typically occurs when the target is a verb used as a modifier in its -ing form, e.g.

The branches made a rattling [sound].

In this example, the frame element Sound is actually expressed by the word sound. The frame element also occurs in copular constructions with a target noun in the predicate, e.g.

[Her voice] was just a croak.

Here, the expression her voice expresses Sound.

FE: Manner

Manner expressions may be of lexicographic interest if they describe properties of a sounds as such: loudly, shrilly, etc.

Jo sobbed [loudly].

Frame: Perception-experience

Inherits: Perception

Mapping:

Source	Target
Perception.Perceiver	Perception-experience.Perceiver-Passive
Perception.Phenomenon	Perception-experience.Phenomenon

Lexemes

detect.v, feel.v, hear.v, perceive.v, perception.n, see.v, sense.v, smell.v, taste.v

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains perception words whose Perceivers have perceptual experiences that they do not necessarily intend to. For this reason we call the Perceiver role Perceiver-Passive.

Comparing the Perception-experience frame to the Perception-active frame, we note that for some modalities there are different lexical items in each frame. For instance, whereas Perception-experience has see, Pereception-active has look at. For other sense modalities, we find the same lexical items in both frames. To illustrate, consider the verb smell where I smell something rotten exemplifies its Perception-experience use and Smell this to see if it's fresh exemplifies its Perception-active sense.

This frame also includes words which are not specific to any sense modality, including detect, perceive, perception, sense.

FE: Perceiver-Passive

This FE is the being who has a perceptual experience, not necessarily on purpose. It is typically expressed as an External Argument:

[The waiter] smelled something foul in the kitchen.

FE: Phenomenon

This FE is the entity or phenomenon that the perceiver experiences with his or her senses. It is typically expressed as Object with verbs:

The waiter smelled [something foul] in the kitchen.

FE: Body Part

Marlow felt something cold and hard [against the back of his
neck].

This frame element occurs less frequently than others, because many target words imply that a particular part of the body is involved (e.g. smelling must be done with the nose). However, the verb feel does take this frame element, because touch is not localized on the body the same way other modalities are. Body Part may be expressed in other modalities when it is more specific than what is implied by the target word in question:

I heard a ringing [in my right ear].

FE: Location of Perceiver

This FE is the location of the Perceiver during the perceptual experience. It is typically expressed in a from-PP:

The witnesses saw the robbery [from the their car].

FE: Direction

This frame element is used for all path-like expressions, except those indicating the location of the perceiver (see above), that describe how the perceiver's attention is directed during the act of perception.

The detective could easily see [into the house].

The detective heard their conversation [through the wall].

FE: State

This frame element is used for predicate expressions that apply to the Phenomenon, providing some information about the state it is in while the perceiver experiences it:

The detective saw the suspect [fleeing].

Pat saw Kim [naked].

FE: Ground

This FE is the perceptual background against which the Phenomenon is experienced (or not experienced) by the Perceiver. It can be distinguished from locative postnominal modifiers of the Phenomenon in negative contexts:

Pat didn't see Kim  [behind the bar].

In this example, it is implied that Pat looked behind the bar and did not find Kim there.

FE: Manner

Manner expressions may be of lexicographic interest if they describe properties of perception as such: clearly, loudly, etc.

Pat heard the shot [clearly].

Frame: Sensation

Inherits: Perception

Mapping:

Source	Target
Perception.Perceiver	Sensation.Perceiver-Passive
Perception.Phenomenon	Sensation.Percept

Lexemes

aroma.n, bouquet.n, feel.n, feeling.n, flavour.n, fragrance.n, incense.n, noise.n, odour.n, perception.n, perfume.n, reek.n, savour.n, scent.n, sensation.n, sense.n, sight.n, smell.n, sound.n, stink.n, taste.n, vision.n, whiff.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains nouns that refer to sensations in different modalities. The FE Source is used for the phenomenon that gives rise to the sensation in question. The FE Percept is used for the characteristic quality of the sensation. In cases of veridical perception these are not typically distinguished from one another; we use the FE Percept as the default in these cases. With some nouns in this frame it is possible to express the being who experiences the sensation. We mark such expressions with the FE Perceiver-Passive. (The -Passive part of this label serves to distinguish this FE from the Perceiver-Agentive FE used in other frames.)

FE: Perceiver-Passive

This FE is only expressed with certain nouns in this frame, and then only with the help of a support verb, such as have:

[I] have a tingling sensation in my hands.

With most nouns in this frame, a perceiver can only be expressed as the subject of a perception verb such as detect or sense:

The dog detected the scent of explosives.

In sentences like these the perceiver-denoting expression is not annotated because it is introduced by another perception word, which is treated independently in a different frame.

FE: Source

This is the entity or phenomenon which gives rise to the sensation. In cases of veridical sensation, this FE is not typically distinguished from Percept (see below). Most of the phrases that express this FE can be paraphrased as from-phrases, e.g.

The smell [of the garlic] made me hungry.

The smell from the garlic made me hungry.

The smell of garlic made me hungry.

*The smell from garlic made me hungry.

The first sentence, in which the object of the prepostion of is a definite NP, can be roughly paraphrased by the second sentence, which replaces the of-PP with a from-PP. This shows that the phrase of the garlic in the first sentence expresses Source. On the other hand, the third sentence, in which the object of the preposition of is a bare noun, cannot be so paraphrased. The bare-noun of-PPs express Percept rather than Source.

Source can be expressed as the External Argument of a support verb, e.g.

[This herb] emits a strong odor.

FE: Percept

The FE Percept is used for phrases that express the characteristic property of a sensation. Typically this characteristic property is described with reference to the entity or phenomenon that produces the sensation--that is why this FE can be difficult to distinguish from Source. It is possible for Source and Percept to be expressed separately, however:

[This herb (Source)] gives off a smell [of garlic
(Percept)].

In cases in which it is impossible to distinguish between Source and Percept, Percept is used as the default FE.

FE: Body Part

This FE is assigned to phrases expressing the body part in which a sensation is located. Since touch is the least localized of sense modalities, words relating to haptic sensations are the ones most likely to occur with this FE:

I have a tingling feeling [in my hands].

Words for other sense modalities can occasionally express this FE as well:

There is a bitter taste [on the back of my tongue].

The ringing sound [in my left ear] distracted me during class.

Domain: Society

Frame: Change-of-Leadership

Lexemes

appoint.v, coup.n, elect.v, insurrection.n, mutiny.n, mutiny.v, overthrow.v, rebellion.n, revolt.v, revolution.n, uprising.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame has to do with the appointment of a new leader or removal from office of an old one. The Selector brings about the change in leadership, for example, by electing or overthrowing a leader.

Some words in the frame describe the successful removal from office of a leader, others simply the attempt (e.g. uprising, rebellion).

FE: Selector

The Selector (most commonly a group of people) is responsible for a change in leadership. Typically, it occurs as the External Argument of verbs:

[The voters] elected Blair.

[The president] appoints the prime minister.

FE: Old Leader

With words denoting removal (or attempted removal) from office of a leader, the Old Leader is typically the direct object of verbs, or occurs in a PP Complement with noun targets, frequently headed by the preposition against:

The students overthrew [the president].

The uprising [against the king] was quickly ended by the military.

FE: New Leader

With words denoting appointment to a position, the New Leader is typically the object of verbs:

The president appoints [the prime minister].

FE: Role

Frequently the Old or New Leader is referred to only by his/her Role. However, the Role can be expressed separately from the Leader, usually as either a secondary predicate or in a PP Complement:

The board of directors appointed Ashton [Acting President].

The board of directors appointed Ashton [as Acting President].

The voters elected Mitterand [to the presidency]

Frame: Leadership

Lexemes

bishop.n, boss.n, captain.n, chairman.n, chairperson.n, chief.n, chieftain.n, command.v, commandant.n, commander.n, director.n, emperor.n, general.n, govern.v, governor.n, head.n, head.v, imam.n, king.n, lead.v, leader.n, mayor.n, minister.n, monarch.n, premier.n, preside.v, president.n, principal.n, queen.n, reign.v, rule.v, ruler.n, run.v, shah.n, sovereign.n, sultan.n, vice-captain.n, vice-chairman.n, vice-president.n, vice-principal.n, viceroy.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These are words referring to control by a Leader over a particular domain (the Jurisdiction). The frame contains both nouns referring to a title or position (e.g. director, king, president), and verbs describing the action of leadership (e.g. rule, reign).

FE: Leader

With verbs, and with predicate nominals linking an individual to a Role, the Leader is usually the External Argument:

[King Hussein] ruled Jordan.

[Hussein] was King of Jordan.

With leadership nouns, the frame element Leader is most frequently instantiated by the target itself, and therefore the SLF (Self) nubbie is tagged:

The queen [SLF] announced her upcoming visit to Belgium.

FE: Jurisdiction

The domain (organization, area or political entity) in which the Leader has control.

King Hussein ruled [Jordan].

FE: Role

When expressed separately from the target, Role usually occurs in a PP Complement headed by as:

Hussein reigned [as King of Jordan]

FE: Duration

Leadership by any particular individual is frequently limited in time. Duration occurs in a PP Complement:

She reigned [for 3 years].

Frame: Sociability

Lexemes

companionable.a, extrovert.a, extrovert.n, friendly.a, gregarious.a, introverted.a, loner.n, outgoing.a, recluse.n, shy.a, sociable.a, timid.a

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These words describe how outgoing or sociable a Protagonist is, often in a particular context, either with certain people (the Company), or about a particular situation, topic or event (the Content).

FE: Protagonist

The Protagonist is the person whose sociability is being described.

[Pat] is sociable.

Pat was a very shy [child].

[Pat] is a loner.

Everyone had heard about the recluse[SLF] who lived on the hill.

FE: Company

The Protagonist may be sociable, shy, outgoing, etc. when with particular Company (specific people or types of people). Company usually occurs in a PP Complement with a target adjective:

Kim is shy [of strangers].

The children are friendly [to everyone they meet].

FE: Content

The Protagonist may be sociable, shy, outgoing, etc. when in a particular situation, or about performing some action.

Kim is outgoing [when traveling alone].

Kim is textbftimid [about meeting new people].

Frame: Strictness

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

These adjectives describe the degree of strictness or tolerance of an Agent, usually with regard to another person (the Controllee) and often with regard to a particular Issue.

FE: Agent

The Agent is the person who is strict or liberal in his/her control over another. This FE is usually the External Argument with predicate adjectives, or the head noun if the adjective is used attributively:

[The school] is very liberal in approach and curriculum.

I attended a very liberal [school].

FE: Controllee

Grandparents are often indulgent [with their grandchildren].

FE: Behavior

The Agent's strictness may be manifested in particular behavior:

The judge was lenient [in dealing with the offender].

FE: Issue

The Agent may be strict or lenient with respect to a particular matter or situation. Issue occurs in PP Complements, usually headed by about:

The city council is strict [about pollution control].

FE: Medium

A Medium of control, such as rules, may also be described as strict or lenient. Medium may occur with or without the Agent who ultimately has control (i.e. the one who implements or enforces the rules).

The club has strict [rules] about who can become a member.

[Immigration law] is very strict.

Domain: Space

Frame: Adornment

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame involves a static (primarily spatial) relationship between a figure and a ground. All of the verbs used statically in this frame can also occur in the frame Motion.Filling, producing pairs such as the following:

Filling:
Pat covered the table with flowers.

Adornment:
Flowers covered the table.

FE: Theme

The Theme in this frame is the object which is described as standing in some spatial relation to a particular location. Theme typically occurs as the External Argument or, with passives, as a PP Complement headed by with or by:

[Ribbons] festooned the car.

The car was festooned [with ribbons].

The table was covered [by a purple velvet cloth].

FE: Location

The Location is the object or area with respect to which the Theme's spatial arrangement is described. This frame element generally occurs as an NP Object or the External Argument of passives.

Thick varnish coated [the beautiful wood].

[The beautiful wood] was coated with thick varnish.

Frame: Expansion

Lexemes

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame has to do with the expansion or contraction of an object (the Item). There are a number of additional ways the change in size may be characterized-i.e. in terms of Initial- and Result-Sizes, the Dimension of expansion or the Degree of change.

FE: Agent

With some words in this frame, an Agent who causes the change in size of the Item may be present. The Agent typically occurs as the External Argument of a verb:

[Management] expanded the company.

FE: Item

The Item is frequently the External Argument of verbs or the NP Object if an Agent is expressed:

[The company] expanded.

Management expanded [the company].

FE: Initial Size

Initial Size is rarely expressed without Result Size also being explicit. Initial Size generally occurs in a PP-from Complement:

The glacier shrank [from 1km square] to 400 square meters.

FE: Result Size

Result Size is typically expressed in a PP Coomplement headed by to:

The trees grow [to 25 feet].

FE: Degree

Although Degree, is treated as a global frame element, it plays an important role in this frame. Any expression describing the extent of the size change (either in units or as a percentage) is treated as Degree:

The forests shrank [by 25,000 hectares last year].

The forests shrank [by half last year].

FE: Dimension

Change of size may be limited to or described in terms of a single Dimension:

The wall grew [in height].

The piglet had grown 6 inches [in length].

Frame: Location

Lexemes

amphora.n, backpack.n, baggage.n, can.n, capsule.n, cart.n, casket.n, cell.n, chamber.n, chest.n, closet.n, compartment.n, drawer.n, envelope.n, flask.n, garage.n, glass.n, handbag.n, jar.n, kettle.n, knapsack.n, ladle.n, locker.n, mug.n, package.n, pocket.n, pot.n, purse.n, reservoir.n, sack.n, satchel.n, sandbag.n, shovel.n, shelf.n, spoon.n, suitcase.n, table.n, tin.n, wallet.n

base.n, boundary.n, edge.n, exterior.n, interior.n, side.n, surface.n, top.n

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

The complement structures of these nouns are not unusual. They can occur with possessives indicating the entity located ([your] position) or the owner ([my] pocket), phrasal complements or modifying nouns indicating the contents (a bag [of popcorn], including potential or intended contents (my [underwear] drawer), or the whole of which the target is a part (the top [of the spire].

FE: FE1

FE: FE2

Domain: Time

Frame: Duration

Lexemes

abiding.a, brief.a, chronic.a, enduring.a, ephemeral.a, eternal.a, extended.a, interim.a, lasting.a, lengthy.a, momentary.a, perpetual.a, short.a

Frame Elements (FEs)

General Description

This frame contains adjectives characterizing the duration of an event, state or time-period.

FE: Eventuality